A\\E-UKIVERS/A 


/•Y^          ^OJIIV.HU' 


N\M  LIBRARY 


o 


e 


^•LIBR 


1\\ 


A    HISTORY 
OF    ARCHITECTURE 


HARPER'S  FINE   ARTS   SERIES 

Edited  by 
GEORGE   HENRY   CHASE,  Ph.D. 

JOHN  E.  HUDSON  PROFESSOR  OF  ARCHAEOLOGY  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

A  new  series  embodying  the  latest  results  of  archaeology  and  critical 
study  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  themselves  and  in  their  relation  to  the  evolution 
of  civilization.  These  books  are  prepared  with  reference  to  class  use  in 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning,  and  they  also  provide  authoritative, 
comprehensive,  and  interesting  histories  for  the  general  reader.  Each 
volume  will  contain  an  unusual  number  of  carefully  selected  illustrations. 

A   HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

BY  FISKB  KIMBALL,  M.  Arch.,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Architecture,  University  of  Michigan 

and 

GEORGE  HAROLD  EDGELL,  Ph.D. 
Assistant  Professor  of  Fine  Arts.  Harvard  University 

In  Preparation 

A   HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE 
BY  PROF.  GEORGE  HENRY  CHASE 

and 

PROF.  CHANDLER  RATHFON  POST 
Harvard  University 

A   HISTORY   OF   PAINTING 

BY  PROF.  ARTHUR  POPE 

Harvard  University 


HARPER   &    BROTHERS,    NEW   YORK 
[ESTABLISHED  1817] 


HARPER    S       FINE       ARTS       SERIES 

A  HISTORY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE 

BY 

FISKE    KIMBALL,  M.ARCH.,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  ARCHITECTURE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 

AND 

GEORGE  HAROLD  EDGELL,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  FINE  ARTS  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


ILLUSTRATED 


HARPER  y  BROTHERS  PUBLISHERS 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 


Decimal  Classification,  720.9 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


Copyright,  1918.  by  Harper  &  Brothers 

Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 

Published  March.  1918 


AftftiMdvrt  • 

Ufbin  Planning 
Library 


£00 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION xvii 

AUTHORS'  PREFACE xxi 

I.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE       I 

II.  PREHISTORIC  ARCHITECTURE 8 

III.  PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE u 

IV.  GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 49 

V.  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 103 

VI.  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE 159 

VII.  BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 183 

VIII.  ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE       217 

IX.  GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE        275 

X.  RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE       344 

XI.  POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE       401 

XII.  MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 460 

XIII.  AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 524 

XIV.  EASTERN  ARCHITECTURE 572 

GLOSSARY 589 

INDEX 605 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  STONEHENGE.     (RESTORED  BY  HARTMANN) 9 

2.  GIZEH.     THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  KHAFRE  AND  KHUFU  (RESTORED 

BY  HOLSCHER) 14 

3.  BENI  HASAN.     PORTICO  OF  A  TOMB         17 

4.  DER-EL-BAHRI.     MORTUARY  TEMPLE  OF  HATSHEPSUT.     (RE- 

STORED BY  BRUNET) 18 

5.  KARNAK.     PLAN  OF  PRINCIPAL  TEMPLES.     (BAEDEKER)     .     .  19 

6.  KARNAK.     CENTRAL  AISLES  OF  THE  HYPOSTYLE  HALL  OF  THE 

GREAT  TEMPLE  OF  AMON.     MODEL  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN 

MUSEUM 20 

7.  DUR-SHARRUKIN  (KHORSABAD).     THE   PALACE   OF   SARGON 

(RESTORED  BY  PLACE) 27 

8.  DUR-SHARRUKIN.  THE  PALACE  OF  SARGON.     PLAN.     (PLACE)  28 

9.  BABYLON.     PLAN    OF    THE    TEMPLE    OF    NINMAH.     (AFTER 

KOLDEWEY)       31 

10.  PERSEPOLIS.     PLAN  OF  THE  PALACE  PLATFORM 34 

it.  PERSEPOLIS.     TOMB  OF  DARIUS,  NAKSH-I-RUSTAM.     (JACKSON)  35 

12.  KNOSSOS.     PLAN  OF  A  PART  OF  THE   PALACE.     (EVANS)      .  38 

13.  TIRYNS.     PLAN  OF  THE  ACROPOLIS.     (RODENWALDT)     ...  40 

14.  MYCEN/E.     GATE  OF  LIONS 41 

15.  MYCENAE.     PORTAL    OF    THE    "TREASURY     OF     ATREUS." 

(RESTORED  BY  SPIERS) 43 

16.  ATHENS.     THE  PARTHENON,  FROM  THE  NORTHWEST     ...  53 

17.  ATHENS.     THE  PARTHENON.     (RESTORED  TO  ITS  CONDITION 

IN  ROMAN  TIMES.     MODEL  IN  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM)  .  53 

1 8.  ATHENS.    THE  ERECHTHEUM,  FROM  THE  WEST 54 

19.  THE  GREEK  DORIC  ORDER 59 

20.  THE   GREEK    DORIC   ORDER,    WITH   A    RETRANSLATION    INTO 

WOOD.     (AFTER  DURM)      .     .  - 61 

21.  PROFILES  OF  GREEK  DORIC  CAPITALS,  ARRANGED  IN  CHRONO- 

LOGICAL ORDER 63 

22.  IONIC    ENTABLATURE,    RETRANSLATED    INTO  WOOD.     (AFTER 

DURM) 66 

23.  MAGNESIA.    TEMPLE  OF  ARTEMIS.     DETAILS.     (HUMANN)     .  67 

24.  EPIDAURUS.     CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL  OF  THE  THOLOS     ...  68 

25.  ATHENS.     MONUMENT  OF  LYSICRATES 69 

26.  AKRAGAS.     TEMPLE  OF  OLYMPIAN  ZEUS.    (RESTORED  BY  E.  H. 

TRYSELL,  AFTER  KOLDEWEY)       70 

27.  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MOLDINGS.     (REYNAUD)   ..,.,.  7? 


viii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

28.  P.ESTUM.     THE    GREAT    TEMPLE,    SO-CALLED    "TEMPLE    OF 

NEPTUNE."     (CHIPIEZ)       75 

29.  VARIETIES  OF  THE  GREEK  TEMPLE  PLAN 77 

30.  ATHENS.     PLAN  OF  THE  ACROPOLIS.     (KAUPERT)     ....  81 

31.  MAGNESIA.    THE    AGORA    AND    SURROUNDING    BUILDINGS. 

(HUMANN) 88 

32.  EPHESUS.     THEATER     DURING    THE     HELLENISTIC     PERIOD. 

(RESTORED  BY  FIECHTER) 90 

33.  PRIENE.     "  HOUSE  XXXIII."   (WIEGAND) 93 

34.  DELOS.     HOUSE  OF  THE  TRIDENT.     (P.  PARIS) 94 

35.  DELPHI.     TEMPLE  AND  PRECINCT  OF  APOLLO.     (RESTORED  BY 

R.  H.  SMYTHE) 96 

36.  PRIENE.     BIRD'S-EYE  VIEW.     (RESTORED  BY  ZIPPELIUS)    .     .  97 

37.  AN  ETRUSCAN  TEMPLE.     (RESTORED  BY  HULSEN)    ....  106 

38.  PERUGIA.     "ARCH  OF  AUGUSTUS"       108 

39.  TIVOLI.     "TEMPLE  OF  VESTA" .     ...     .  no 

40.  ROME.     THE  COLOSSEUM , m 

41.  N!MES.     "THE  MAISON  CARREE"       116 

42.  ROME.     INTERIOR    OF   THE    PANTHEON    (RESTORED    BY    ISA- 

BELLE),  SHOWING  THE  CONDITION  AFTER  THE  RESTORATION 

OF  SEVERUS 117 

43.  ROME.    THE  FORUM  ROMANUM       119 

44.  ROME.     THE  FORUM  ROMANUM  AND  THE  FORA  OF  THE  EM- 

PERORS.    PLAN.     (RESTORED  BY  GROMORT)      .     .     .     .     .     121 

45.  ROME.     BASILICA   OF   MAXENTIUS,   OR   CONSTANTINE.     (RE- 

STORED BY  D'ESPOUY) 123 

46.  SCHEMATIC  REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 

ROMAN  THEATER.     (FIECHTER) 125 

47.  OSTIA.     THE  THEATER.     (RESTORED  BY  ANDRE)      ....     126 

48.  ROME.     THERMAE   OF   CARACALLA.     PLAN.      (RESTORED    BY 

BLOUET) 129 

49.  ROME.     THERMAE  OF  DIOCLETIAN.     TEPIDARIUM.     (RESTORED 

BY  PAULIN)       130 

50.  N!MES.    THE   "PONT   DU   GARD"       132 

51.  THE  ARCH  OF  TITUS 134 

52.  TRIER.     PORTA  NIGRA        135 

53.  ROME.     MAUSOLEUM    OF    HADRIAN.     (RESTORED    BY    VAUD- 

REMER) 136 

54.  POMPEII.     HOUSE  OF  PANSA.     PLAN 138 

55.  TIVOLI.     VILLA  OF  HADRIAN.     PLAN.     (RESTORED  BY  G.  S. 

KOYL) 140 

56.  ROME.     PALACES   OF   THE    CAESARS.     PLAN.     (RESTORED  BY 

DEGLANE) 141 

57.  SPALATO.     PALACE  OF  DIOCLETIAN.     (RESTORED  BY  HEBRARD)     142 

58.  ROME.     CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL  AND  ENTABLATURE  FROM  THE 

TEMPLE  OF   CASTOR   AND   POLLUX.     (RESTORED   CAST  IN 
THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM) 145 

59.  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  RELATIONS  OF  ARCH  AND  COLUMN  IN 

ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 147 


ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

FIG.  PAGE 

60.  ROMAN  CELLULAR  VAULT.     (Cnoisv) 151 

61.  ROMAN  LAMINATED  VAULT.     (CHOISY) 151 

62.  MOUSMIEH.     PRiETORIUM.     (DE  VOGUE) 153 

63.  PLANS  OF  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCHES       160 

64.  ELEVATIONS  OF  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCHES       162 

65.  ROME.    SAN  CLEMENTE.     PLAN  SHOWING  THE  ATRIUM     .    .  164 

66.  ROME.     SAINT  PAUL'S  OUTSIDE-THE- WALLS.     INTERIOR  SEEN 

FROM  THE  ENTRANCE 167 

67.  ROME.     SAN  LORENZO  FUORI-LE-MURA.     EXTERIOR      .     .     .  167 

68.  ROME.     SAN   LORENZO   FUORI-LE-MURA.     INTERIOR      .     .     .  169 

69.  RAVENNA.     SANT'  APOLLINARE  Nuovo.     INTERIOR  ....  169 

70.  ROME.    SAN  STEFANO  ROTONDO.     INTERIOR 170 

71.  ROME.    SANTA  COSTANZA.    SECTION  SHOWING  THE  CONSTRUC- 

TION   171 

72.  TOURMANIN.     THE  BASILICA  RESTORED 172 

73.  KALAT-SEMAN.    THE  BASILICA   OF   SAINT   SIMEON   STYLITES  173 

74.  BERLIN   MUSEUM.     THE  FRIEZE  FROM   MSCHATTA.     (STRYZ- 

GOWSKI)    .     .     .     .    „    , 175 

75.  RAVENNA.     THE  MAUSOLEUM  OF  GALLA  PLACIDIA.     DRAWING 

OF  THE  EXTERIOR 178 

76.  RAVENNA.     SAN  VITALE.     EXAMPLES  OF  BYZANTINE  CAPITALS  185 

77.  CONSTANTINOPLE.     SAINTS  SERGIUS  AND  BACCHUS.     PLAN  .     .  187 

78.  CONSTANTINOPLE.     SAINT  IRENE.    PLAN 188 

79.  PLANS  OF  BYZANTINE  CHURCHES 189 

80.  SECTIONS  OF  BYZANTINE  CHURCHES 190 

81.  CONSTANTINOPLE.     HAGIA  SOPHIA.     EXTERIOR 191 

82.  CONSTANTINOPLE.     HAGIA  SOPHIA.     INTERIOR  LOOKING  TOW- 

ARD THE  APSE       192 

83.  ROME.     THE  VATICAN.     MANUSCRIPT  ILLUMINATION  SHOWING 

THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  APOSTLES  AT 

CONSTANTINOPLE.    (DIEHL) 194 

84.  CONSTANTINOPLE.    THE   HOLY  APOSTLES.   PLAN,   RESTORED  195 

85.  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.     CHARLEMAGNE'S  CHAPEL.     INTERIOR   .    .  196 

86.  CONSTANTINOPLE.     THE  KILISSEDJAMI.  VIEW  FROM  THE  EAST. 

(EBERSOLT) 199 

87.  STIRIS  -(PHOCIS).     MONASTERY  OF  SAINT  LUKE.     VIEW  FROM 

THE  EAST  SHOWING  THE  Two  CHURCHES.     (SCHULTZ  AND 

BARNSLEY) 200 

88.  VENICE.    SAINT  MARK.    PLAN 201 

89.  VENICE.    SAINT  MARK.    VIEW  FROM  THE  PIAZZA    ....  202 

90.  VENICE.    SAINT  MARK.    INTERIOR  LOOKING  TOWARD  THE  APSE  203 

91.  AKTHAMAR    (LAKE    VAN).    THE    CHURCH    SEEN    FROM    THE 

SOUTHEAST.     (LYNCH) 204 

92.  MANASSIA  (SERBIA).    (POKRYCHKIN) 206 

93.  CONSTANTINOPLE.     PLAN  OF  THE  SACRED  PALACE,  RESTORED. 

(EBERSOLT)        209 

94.  HAYDRA.     THE  FORTIFICATIONS,  RESTORED.     (DIEHL)     .     .     .  211 

95.  PLAN  OF  SAINT  GALL.    REDRAWN  FROM  THE  NINTH  CENTURY 

MANUSCRIPT.     (PORTER) 222 


x  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

96.  LORSCH.     ONE  BAY  OF  THE  BASILICAN  GATE 223 

97.  EARL'S  BARTON.     THE  TOWER 224 

98.  SANTA  MARIA  DE  NARANCO.    PLAN 225 

99.  PLANS  OF  ROMANESQUE  CHURCHES 227 

100.  ELEVATIONS  AND  SECTIONS  OF  ROMANESQUE  CHURCHES    .     .  229 

101.  MILAN.     SANT' AMBROGIO.     DRAWING  OF  ONE  BAY,  SHOWING 

VAULT  RIBS  AND  SUPPORTS.     (MOORE) 230 

102.  MILAN.     SANT'  AMBROGIO.     INTERIOR  LOOKING  TOWARD  THE 

APSE 231 

103.  MILAN.     SANT'  AMBROGIO.     EXTERIOR 232 

104.  VERONA.     SAN  ZENO.     GENERAL  VIEW 233 

105.  PISA.     THE  CATHEDRAL  AND  LEANING  TOWER,  SEEN  FROM 

THE  SOUTHWEST 235 

106.  PISA.     CATHEDRAL.     PLAN 236 

107.  PISA.     CATHEDRAL.     VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR  LOOKING  TOW- 

ARD THE  APSE 237 

108.  CEFALU.     CATHEDRAL.     VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  END    ....  239 

109.  MONREALE.     CATHEDRAL.     VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR  LOOKING 

TOWARD  THE  APSE 240 

no.  MONREALE.  CATHEDRAL.  SYSTEM  OF  THE  NAVE  AND  THE 

EXTERIOR  OF  THE  CHOIR 241 

in.  COLOGNE.  SAINT  MARY  OF  THE  CAPITOL.  PLAN  ....  242 

112.  PAULINZELLE.     PLAN 242 

113.  SYSTEMS  OF  GERMAN  ROMANESQUE  CHURCHES 243 

114.  DRUBECK.     DRAWING  OF  ONE  BAY,  SHOWING  THE  SYSTEM  244 

115.  SPEYER.     PLAN 245 

116.  SYSTEMS  OF  RHENISH  ROMANESQUE  CATHEDRALS     ....  246 
ri7.  SPEYER.     CATHEDRAL.     VIEW    OF    THE    INTERIOR    LOOKING 

TOWARD  THE  APSE 247 

1 1 8.  MAINZ.     CATHEDRAL.     VIEW  FROM  THE  NORTH 248 

119.  ARLES.     SAINT  TROPHIME.     THE  MAIN  PORTAL 248 

120.  CLERMONT-FERRAND.     NOTRE  DAME  DU  PORT.     TRANSVERSE 

SECTION,  SHOWING  HALF-BARREL  VAULT  OVER  THE  AISLE  249 

121.  CLERMONT-FERRAND.     NOTRE    DAME    DU    PORT.     VIEW    OF 

THE  EAST  END 250 

122.  TOULOUSE.     SAINT  SERNIN.     THE  INTERIOR  SEEN  FROM  THE 

WEST 251 

123.  PERIGUEUX.     SAINT    FRONT.     GENERAL    VIEW    FROM    THE 

SOUTHEAST 252 

124.  POITIERS.     NOTRE  DAME  LA  GRANDE.     VIEW  OF  THE  WEST 

END 253 

125.  VEZELAY.     CHURCH    OF    THE    MADELEINE.     THE    INTERIOR 

SEEN  FROM  THE  VESTIBULE       254 

126.  ROMANESQUE  ORNAMENT       255 

127.  JUMIEGES.     ABBEY  CHURCH.     THE  SYSTEM 256 

128.  CAEN.     THE  ABBEY  CHURCHES.     SYSTEM  OF  THE  INTERIORS  257 

129.  CAEN.     SAINT  ETIENNE.      VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR  LOOKING 

TOWARD  THE  APSE 258 

130.  IFFLEY.  PARISH  CHURCH.     VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  END    .     .     .  259 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FIO.  PAGE 

131.  DURHAM.    CATHEDRAL.     PLAN 260 

132.  DURHAM.    CATHEDRAL.    GENERAL  VIEW  FROM  THE  SOUTHEAST  261 

133.  BEAUVAIS.     SAINT  ETIENNE.      DRAWING    OF   ONE    OF    THE 

AISLE  VAULTS  AND  ITS  SUPPORTS.     (MOORE)     ....  262 

134.  MORIENVAL.     PARISH  CHURCH.     VIEW  OF  THE  NORTH  AISLE  263 

135.  COMPOSTELA.     SANTIAGO.     PLAN 264 

136.  LEON.     SAN  ISIDORO.     PLAN  AND  SYSTEM 265 

137.  AVILA.     GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  FORTIFICATIONS     ....  269 

138.  COMPARATIVE  PLANS  OF  GOTHIC  CATHEDRALS  IN  FRANCE, 

GERMANY,  ITALY  AND  ENGLAND 276 

139.  PLANS  OF  GOTHIC  BUILDINGS 278 

140.  SECTIONS  ABD  SYSTEMS  OF  GOTHIC  BUILDINGS 280 

141.  AMIENS.     WEST  FRONT  OF   THE  CATHEDRAL 281 

142.  AMIENS.     THE  CATHEDRAL.     VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR,  LOOK- 

ING INTO  THE  APSE 283 

143.  EXAMPLES  OF  MEDIEVAL  VAULTS 286 

144.  REIMS.     THE   CATHEDRAL.     VIEW   OF   THE   VAULTS   AFTER 

THE  FIRST  BOMBARDMENT  IN  1914,  SHOWING  THE  LEVEL 

CROWNS  OF  DEVELOPED  GOTHIC  VAULTS 287 

145.  GOTHIC  VAULTING  CONOID,   SHOWING  THE   DIRECTIONS   OF 

THE  THRUSTS  AND  THEIR  ABUTMENT.     (MOORE)     .     .     .  288 

146.  SAINT  LEU  D'ESSERENT.     VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR,  SHOWING 

THE  VAULTS  AND,  THROUGH  THE  WINDOWS,  THE  FLYING 

BUTTRESSES 289 

147.  ARRANGEMENT  OF  MONUMENTS  AND  DETAILS  TO  ILLUSTRATE 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BUTTRESS  AND  THE  DEVELOP- 
MENT OF  THE  FACADE 290 

148.  PARIS.     THE  SAINTE  CHAPELLE.     TRANSVERSE  CUT    ...  291 

149.  PLANS  OF  THE  EAST  ENDS  OF  FIVE  GOTHIC  CHURCHES,  IL- 

LUSTRATING THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHEVET   ....  292 

150.  PLANS  ILLUSTRATING  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GOTHIC  PILR  293 

151.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WINDOW  OPENING.     EXAMPLES 

OF  PLATE  AND  BAR  TRACERY    . 294 

152.  CHARTRES.     THE  SOUTHERN   SPIRE 296 

153.  SENLIS.    THE  SPIRE 297 

154.  REIMS.     THE  CATHEDRAL  VIEWED  FROM  THE  NORTH  BEFORE 

THE  BOMBARDMENT  OF  1914 300 

155.  CHARTRES.     CATHEDRAL.     PLAN 301 

156.  SALISBURY.     THE  CATHEDRAL,  SEEN  FROM  THE  NORTHEAST  302 

157.  SALISBURY.     INTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL,  LOOKING  TOWARD 

THE  EAST  END 303 

158.  LINCOLN.    THE  CATHEDRAL.    THE  ANGEL  CHOIR  ....  304 

159.  YORK.    THE  SYSTEM  OF  THE  CHOIR 305 

160.  LONDON.     WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.     HENRY  VII. 's  CHAPEL  .     .  306 

161.  GLOUCESTER.    THE  CATHEDRAL.    INTERIOR  OF  THE  CLOISTERS  307 

162.  ROUEN.    SAINT  OUEN.  SYSTEM 308 

163.  ABBEVILLE.    SAINT  VULFRAM.    THE  WEST  PORTALS    .    .    .  309 

164.  ROUEN.    SAINT  MACLOU.    VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  FRONT  AND 

SPIRE 31° 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PIG.  PAGE 

165.  BAMBERG.    CATHEDRAL.    PLAN  AND  SYSTEM 311 

1 66.  MUNSTER.    CATHEDRAL.    SYSTEM 312 

167.  FREIBURG.    THE  MINSTER,  SEEN  FROM  THE  SOUTHEAST    .     .  313 

1 68.  FREIBURG.    THE  MINSTER.     SYSTEM 314 

169.  MARBURG.    SAINT    ELIZABETH.     THE   INTERIOR,   LOOKING 

TOWARD  THE  APSE 315 

170.  SYSTEMS  OF  HALLENKIRCHEN 316 

171.  TOLEDO.    CATHEDRAL.    VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR,   LOOKING 

TOWARD  THE  APSE       317 

172.  SEVILLE.     THE    CATHEDRAL    AND    GIRALDA    TOWER,    SEEN 

FROM  THE  SOUTHWEST 318 

173.  ASSISI.    SAN  FRANCESCO.   PLAN 319 

174.  FLORENCE.     THE    CATHEDRAL.     VIEW    OF    THE    INTERIOR, 

LOOKING  TOWARD  THE  APSE 320 

175.  ORVIETO.     THE  CATHEDRAL  FRONT,  SEEN  FROM  THE  SOUTH- 

WEST         321 

176.  MILAN.    EXTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL 322 

177.  AlGUES-MORTES.     GENERAL  VlEW  OF  THE  ClTY  AND  FORTIFI- 

CATIONS      324 

178.  CARCASSONNE.     LA  CITE.     VIEW  OF  THE  FORTIFICATIONS    .  325 

179.  COUCY.     GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  CASTLE  GROUNDS,  SHOWING 

THE  DONJON  BEFORE  ITS  DESTRUCTION  IN  1917     .     .     .  326 

1 80.  A  MEDIEVAL  TOWN  HOUSE.     (VIOLLET-LE-DUC)     ....  327 

181.  THE  COUNTRY  DWELLING  OF  A  MEDIEVAL  PEASANT.     ( VIOL- 

LET-LE-DUC)      328 

182.  SAINT  MEDARD-EN-JALLE.    SKETCH  OF  THE  MANOR.     (VIOL- 

LET-LE-DUC)      329 

183.  YPRES.     THE  CLOTH  HALL  AS  IT  APPEARED  BEFORE  THE 

BOMBARDMENT  OF  1914 330 

184.  BOURGES.     MAISON  DE  JACQUES  CCEUR 331 

185.  FLORENCE.     THE    PALAZZO  VECCHIO 332 

1 86.  SIENA.    THE  PALAZZO  PUBBLICO 333 

187.  VENICE.    THE  PALAZZO  DUCALE 334 

1 88.  CAHORS.     THE  PONT  VALENTRE 336 

189.  FLORENCE.     CATHEDRAL  FROM  THE  SOUTHEAST 347 

190.  FLORENCE.     INTERIOR  OF  SAN  LORENZO 348 

igi.  FLORENCE.     PAZZI  CHAPEL 349 

192.  FLORENCE.     PALAZZO  MEDICI-RICCARDI 350 

193.  FLORENCE.     PALAZZO  RUCELLAI 351 

194.  MANTUA.    SANT'  ANDREA.    INTERIOR 352 

195.  THE  CERTOSA  NEAR  PAVIA.     FACADE 353 

196.  VENICE.     PALAZZO  VENDRAMINI 354 

197.  ROME.     LOGGIA  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  SAN  MARCO    ....  355 

198.  ROME.     "TEMPIETTO"  AT  SAN  PIETRO  IN  MONTORIO      .    .  356 

199.  ROME.    SAINT  PETER'S.     INTERIOR 357 

200.  ROME.     PALACE  OF  RAPHAEL.     (RESTORED  BY  HOFFMANN)  .  358 

201.  ROME.     LOGGIA  OF  THE  VILLA  MADAMA.     INTERIOR    .     .     .  359 

202.  ROME.    PALAZZO  DELL'  AQUILA.     (RESTORED  BY  GEYMULLER)  360 

203.  ROME.     MASSIMI  PALACES.     PLAN 362 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

FIG,  PAGE 

204.  FLORENCE.    MEDICI  CHAPEL  AT  SAN  LORENZO 363 

205.  VENICE.    PALAZZO  GRIMANI 364 

206.  VENICE.    LIBRARY  OF  SAINT  MARK 365 

207.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  RENAISSANCE  CHURCHES  OF  CENTRAL 

TYPE • 367 

208.  ROME.    PALAZZO  FARNESE 369 

209.  ROME.  PALAZZO  FARNESE.     PLAN 371 

210.  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  DETAILS.     (AFTER  GROMORT)     .     .    .  373 

211.  "HIGH  RENAISSANCE"  DETAILS.     (AFTER  GROMORT)    .     .     .  375 

212.  BLOIS.      COURT    OF    THE   CHATEAU,   SHOWING  WINGS  OF 

Louis  XIII  (AT  BACK)  AND  FRANCIS  I.     (AT  LEFT)     .  381 

213.  PARIS.     COURT    OF    THE    LOUVRE.    (ORIGINAL    CONSTRUC- 

TIONS OF  LESCOT  AND  GOUJON) 383 

214.  PARIS.     THE  TUILERIES.     (DE  L'ORME'S  PLAN) 385 

215.  PARIS.     DETAIL  FROM  THE  TUILERIES.     (PLANAT)      .     .     ,  387 

216.  SEVILLE.    TOWN  HALL 388 

217.  GRANADA.    PALACE  OF  CHARLES  V.    COURT 389 

218.  HEIDELBERG.    WING   OF   OTTO  HEINRICH   IN  THE  CASTLE  390 

219.  NORNBERG.     PELLER  HOUSE 391 

220.  MONT  ACUTE  HOUSE.     (GOTCH) 393 

221.  HATFIELD  HOUSE 394 

222.  ROME.  PLAN  OF  SAINT  PETER'S  AND  THE  VATICAN.   (GROMORT)  404 

223.  ROME.     SAINT  PETER'S  DOME  FROM  THE  EAST 405 

224.  ROME.     THE  CAPITOL 406 

225.  VICENZA.     THE  BASILICA 407 

226.  VICENZA.    VILLA  ROTONDA 408 

227.  MILAN.    PALAZZO  MARINO.    COURT 410 

228.  VENICE.     SANTA  MARIA  DELLA  SALUTE 413 

229.  ROME.    SAN  CARLO  A'  CATINARI.   CHAPEL  OF  SANTA  CECILIA. 

(Ricci) 415 

230.  BAGNAIA.    VILLA  LANTE.     PLAN.     (TRIGGS) 417 

231.  THE  ESCURIAL.    PLAN 420 

232.  THE  ESCURIAL 421 

233.  SEVILLE.    ALTAR  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  EL  SALVADOR.     (SCHU- 

BERT)        422 

234.  BLOIS.    WING  OF  GASTON  D'ORLEANS 425 

235.  PARIS.    COLONNADE  OF  THE  LOUVRE 427 

236.  VERSAILLES.    THE  PALACE  FROM  THE  PLACE  D'ARMES  .     .     .  428 

237.  VERSAILLES.    PLAN  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  FLOOR  OF  THE  PALACE. 

(GROMORT)       429 

238.  VERSAILLES.    THE  GALERIE  DES  GLACES 431 

239.  PARIS.     PLACE  DE  LA  CONCORDE 432 

240.  VERSAILLES.     PETIT  TRIANON 433 

241.  PARIS.     PORTE  ST.  DENIS.     PRINCIPAL  FRONT      ....  437 

242.  VERSAILLES.     DETAIL  OF  THE  APARTMENTS  OF  Louis  XV.  437 

243.  LONDON.    THE  BANQUETING  HALL,  WHITEHALL 439 

244.  LONDON.     SAINT  PAUL'S   CATHEDRAL.      PLAN 440 

245.  LONDON.    SAINT   PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL 441 

246.  BLENHEIM  PALACE  FROM  THE  FORE-COURT 443 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

247.  PRIOR  PARK  NEAR  BATH 445 

248.  CLIFFORD  CHAMBERS 446 

249.  LONDON.     SAINT  MARY-LE-BOW 449 

250.  DRESDEN.     CENTRAL  PAVILION  OF  THE  ZWINGER    ....  450 

251.  DRESDEN.     FRAUENKIRCHE 451 

252.  PARIS.     CHURCH  OF  SAINTE  GENEVIEVE.     (THE  PANTHEON)  465 

253.  BERLIN.     BRANDENBURG  GATE 466 

254.  PARIS.     ARC  DE  TRIOMPHE  DE  L'^TOILE 467 

255.  KEDLESTON.     THE  DOMED  SALOON 468 

256.  LONDON.     THE    BANK    OF    ENGLAND,     LOTHBURY    ANGLE. 

(RICHARDSON) 468 

257.  EDINBURGH.     THE  HIGH  SCHOOL.     (RICHARDSON)    ....  470 

258.  BERLIN.     ROYAL  THEATER 470 

259.  LONDON.     OLD  NEWGATE  PRISON.     (RICHARDSON)    ....  473 

260.  LIVERPOOL.     SAINT  GEORGE'S  HALL.     (RICHARDSON)    .     .     .  475 

261.  EATON  HALL,  BEFORE  ALTERATION  IN  1870.     (EASTLAKE)    .  479 

262.  LONDON.     HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT 481 

263.  PARIS.     SAINTE  CLOTILDE 485 

264.  DRESDEN.     OLD  COURT  THEATER.     (SEMPER) 489 

265.  LONDON.     NEW  ZEALAND  CHAMBERS.     (MUTHESIUS)    .     .     .  491 

266.  LONDON.     WESTMINSTER  CATHEDRAL 492 

267.  FLETE  LODGE,  NEAR  HOBLETON.     (MUTHESIUS)     ....  493 

268.  HOARCROSS.     CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  ANGELS 494 

269.  PARIS.     BIBLIOTHEQUE  SAINTE   GENEVIEVE 495 

270.  PARIS.     OPERA  HOUSE 496 

271.  PARIS.     CHURCH  OF  THE  SACRED  HEART,  MONTMARTRE    .     .  497 

272.  BRUSSELS.     PALAIS  DE  JUSTICE 497 

273.  ROME.  MONUMENT  TO  VICTOR  EMMANUEL  II 499 

274.  PARIS.     READING-ROOM  OF  THE  BIBLIOTHEQUE  NATIONALS    .  502 

275.  PARIS.     OPERA  HOUSE.     PLAN 508 

276.  PARIS.     GRAND  BAZAR  DE  LA  RUE  DE  RENNES.     (LA  CON- 

STRUCTION MODERNE) 510 

277.  BERLIN.     WERTHEIM    STORE.     FAC.ADE    TO    THE    LEIPZIGER 

PLATZ.     (MODERNE  BAUFORMEN) 510 

278.  GARE  DU   QUAI   D'ORSAY.      INTERIOR.     (LE   GENIE   CIVIL)  511 

279.  BROADLEYS  ON  LAKE  WINDERMERE.     (MUTHESIUS)     .     .     .  513 

280.  VIENNA.     STATION  OF  THE  METROPOLITAN  RAILWAY.     (Lux)  514 

281.  BERLIN.     TURBINE    FACTORY    OF   THE    GENERAL    ELECTRIC 

COMPANY   (AEG).     (HOEBER) 516 

282.  PALENQUE.    SKETCH  PLAN  OF  THE  PALACE  AND  TEMPLES. 

(HOLMES) 525 

283.  TRANSVERSE     SECTION     OF    A    TYPICAL    MAYA    BUILDING. 

(HOLMES) 526 

284.  MEXICO  CITY.     CATHEDRAL 528 

285.  SANTA  BARBARA.     MISSION  AND  FOUNTAIN 530 

286.  NEW  ORLEANS.     THE  CABILDO 531 

287.  IPSWICH.    WHIPPLE  HOUSE 535 

288.  WESTOVER,  VIRGINIA 537 

289.  NEW  YORK.     SAINT  PAUL'S  CHAPEL 539 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

FIG.  PAGE 

290.  NEWPORT.     REDWOOD  LIBRARY 540 

291.  RICHMOND.     VIRGINIA  CAPITOL.     ORIGINAL  MODEL     .     .     .  541 

292.  BOSTON.     STATE  HOUSE 543 

293.  NEW  YORK.     CITY  HALL 544 

294.  PHILADELPHIA.      BANK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.     (CUSTOM 

HOUSE) 545 

295.  WASHINGTON.     UNITED  STATES  CAPITOL 547 

296.  SALEM.     FIERCE-NICHOLS  HOUSE 548 

297.  WASHINGTON.     WHITE  HOUSE.     (HOBAN'S  ORIGINAL  DESIGN)  549 

298.  NEW  YORK.  TRINITY  CHURCH 551 

299.  BOSTON.  TRINITY    CHURCH,    AS    ORIGINALLY    BUILT.     (VAN 

RENSSELAER) 553 

300.  BOSTON.    PUBLIC  LIBRARY 554 

301.  ROCKVILLE.    GARDEN  OF  "MAXWELL  COURT" 555 

302.  CHICAGO  EXPOSITION.     COURT  OF  HONOR 557 

303.  ASHMONT.     CHURCH  OF  ALL  SAINTS  .........  559 

304.  BUFFALO.     GUARANTY    (PRUDENTIAL)    BUILDING     ....  561 

305.  NEW  YORK.     WOOLWORTH  BUILDING 562 

306.  CHICAGO  EXPOSITION.     TRANSPORTATION  BUILDING.     DETAIL  563 

307.  OAK  PARK.     CHURCH  OF  THE  UNITY 564 

308.  CTESIPHON.    ROYAL  PALACE.     (DIEULAFOY) 573 

309.  CORDOVA.     INTERIOR  OF  MOSQUE 575 

310.  CAIRO.     MOSQUE  OF  AMRU.     PLAN 576 

311.  GRANADA.     THE  ALHAMBRA.     COURT  OF  LIONS       ....  577 

312.  AGRA.    THE  TAJ  MAHAL      . 578 

313.  KHAJURAHO.    TEMPLE  OF  VISHNU 581 

314.  JAVA.     THE  CHANDI  MENDOOT.     (SCHELTEMA) 582 

315.  ANGKOR  WAT.  SOUTHWEST  ANGLE  OF  THE  PORTICOES     .     .  583 

316.  PEKIN.    THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN 584 

317.  Uji.    THE  PHENIX-HALL.     (CRAM) 585 


EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

Harper's  Fine  Arts  Series  is  intended  to  provide  for  the 
student  and  the  general  reader  concise  but  authoritative 
histories  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting.  During 
the  last  twenty  years  the  study  of  the  monuments  of  the  past 
has  been  pursued  with  constantly  increasing  thoroughness  by 
a  great  number  of  well-trained  scholars.  Hundreds  of  books 
and  articles  devoted  to  individual  artists,  to  single  monu- 
ments or  groups  of  monuments,  or  to  special  periods  have  ap- 
peared, which  have  greatly  modified  the  generalizations  and 
theories  of  a  generation  or  even  a  decade  ago.  The  spade  of 
the  excavator  has  added  many  new  and  important  monu- 
ments to  those  already  known,  and  brought  to  light  new 
evidence  on  disputed  points.  Most  of  the  older  hand- 
books, therefore,  are  "  out  of  date"  in  many  respects,  and  some 
of  those  more  recently  published  repeat  traditional  statements 
which  have,  in  many  cases,  been  proved  incorrect.  It  has 
been  the  endeavor  of  the  writers  of  this  series  to  consider  all 
the  results  of  modern  investigation  and  to  summarize  them 
as  clearly  as  possible.  The  need  for  such  summaries  of  the 
results  of  research  seems  to  be  better  met  by  single  volumes 
than  by  more  elaborate  treatises,  which  can  have  no  compen- 
sating gain  in  authoritativeness  unless  they  are  the  work  of 
many  collaborators. 

In  every  case  of  conflicting  theories  the  writers  have  tried, 
after  weighing  all  the  evidence,  to  present  the  view  which 
seems  to  them  most  probable,  and  then  to  give,  in  selected 
bibliographies,  the  titles  of  books  which  will  be  found  helpful 
for  further  study.  They  have  not  attempted  to  discuss  a 
large  number  of  monuments  of  any  given  period,  but  have 
chosen  rather  to  emphasize  important  and  characteristic 
works  and  to  show  their  relation  to  the  whole  development. 
In  some  cases,  also,  they  have  emphasized  certain  aspects  of 


xviii  EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

their  subjects  at  the  expense  of  others.  The  development  of 
American  art  has  been  discussed  at  rather  greater  length  than 
has  been  customary  in  similar  books,  since  it  seems  to  the 
writers  that  American  art  merits  fuller  treatment  than  it  has 
usually  received  at  the  hands  of  critics  and  historians.  As 
the  books  are  intended  for  Occidental  readers,  Eastern  art,  in 
spite  of  its  historical  importance  and  intrinsic  value,  is  treated 
in  a  single  chapter.  Throughout,  the  endeavor  has  been  to 
consider  the  art  of  the  past  in  the  light  of  the  present,  to  try 
to  show  how  modern  art  is  related  to  that  which  has  pre- 
ceded it. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  material  the  use  of  the  books  by 
classes  has  been  constantly  kept  in  mind,  and  headings  for 
sections  or  paragraphs  have  been  freely  introduced  throughout 
the  three  volumes. 

One  other  principle  the  writers  have  constantly  kept  before 
them.  The  office  of  the  historian  is  to  trace  development,  to 
show  how  the  art  of  any  period  grew  out  of  that  of  earlier 
times  and  in  turn  conditioned  that  of  later  days.  Too  many 
of  the  older  histories  were  written  to  uphold  a  particular 
system  of  aesthetics  or  to  glorify  a  particular  phase  of  artistic 
development,  frequently  in  a  particular  country.  Many  of 
these  books  are  valuable  as  expressions  of  the  judgment  of  a 
critic  or  as  records  of  the  taste  of  an  age.  But  for  the  be- 
ginner and  the  general  reader  they  are  often  confusing. 
They  place  him  at  an  unfair  disadvantage  and  tend  to  warp 
his  judgment.  Discussions  of  aesthetic  principles  and  state- 
ments of  the  consensus  of  critical  opinion  may  properly  find 
place  in  an  elementary  book,  but  expressions  of  purely  per- 
sonal judgments  and  theories  which  have  not  been  generally 
accepted  should  be  eliminated  so  far  as  possible.  The  aim  of 
the  writers  of  this  series  has  been  to  point  out  the  qualities  in 
the  works  of  any  period  which  have  appealed  most  strongly  to 
the  creators  of  those  works  and  to  endeavor  to  emphasize 
what  has  enduring  value.  It  is  hoped  that  the  resulting 
"objectivity"  of  the  books  will  add  materially  to  their  use- 
fulness. 

The  problem  of  illustration  is  always  difficult.  In  recent 
years,  histories  of  art  and  similar  books  have  exhibited  two 
opposite  tendencies,  the  one  toward  a  large  number  of  illus- 


XIX 

trations  on  a  very  small  scale,  the  other  toward  few  illustra- 
tions, but  those  of  large  size.  The  former  system  has  the 
advantage  of  bringing  before  the  reader  most  of  the  buildings 
or  statues  or  paintings  mentioned  in  the  text,  the  latter  that 
of  showing  more  clearly  the  details  of  individual  works.  In 
this  matter  the  writers  have  tried,  with  the  co-operation  of 
the  publishers,  to  steer  a  middle  course,  providing  a  con- 
siderable number  of  full-page  illustrations  for  especially  im- 
portant monuments  and  a  much  larger  number  of  small  cuts 
for  others.  They  hope  that  they  have  hit  upon  a  "golden 
mean." 

GEORGE  H.  CHASE. 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY, 
1917. 


AUTHORS'    PREFACE 

During  the  last  twenty  years  the  origins  of  architecture 
have  been  pushed  back  another  millennium,  and  its  later  de- 
velopment has  been  enriched  by  wholly  new  chapters.  Minute 
research  on  a  multitude  of  special  points  has  modified  or  over- 
thrown generalizations  of  the  nineteenth  century  which  are 
still  too  often  repeated.  Scholars  have  been  forced,  for 
instance,  to  abandon  the  suppositions  that  Assyria  and 
Etruria  made  any  advance  over  Egypt  and  Greece  in  the  use 
of  the  arch,  that  the  proportions  of  the  Greek  orders  evolved 
uniformly  in  a  given  direction,  that  the  characteristic  feature 
of  Roman  architecture  was  an  inconsistent  application  of  the 
orders  to  arched  constructions.  Similar  instances  from 
mediaeval  and  modern  architecture  could  be  cited,  where  new 
agreements  have  been  reached  on  questions  of  fact. 

Equally  important  have  been  the  changes  of  attitude  on 
many  questions  of  interpretation.  The  part  of  spiritual  in- 
fluences and  spontaneous  creation  in  the  formation  of  styles 
is  now  emphasized,  to  balance  the  one-sided  affirmation,  by 
nineteenth-century  writers,  of  the  influence  of  material 
environment.  The  raison  d'etre  of  many  forms  is  sought  in 
a  purely  formal  expressiveness,  rather  than  in  a  supposed 
structural  necessity.  The  idea  of  an  analogy  between  the 
history  of  styles  and  the  growth  and  inevitable  decay  of  or- 
ganic life  is  now  generally  abandoned,  and  it  is  understood 
that  the  material  must  not  be  forced  into  conformity  with 
any  other  misleading  analogy.  Most  important  of  all,  it  ?« 
recognized  that  in  the  history  of  art,  as  in  other  branches  of 
history,  subjective  criticism  must  give  way  to  the  impartial 
study  of  development — in  which  historical  influence  is  the 
criterion  of  importance.  Freed  from  dogmatic  appraisal, 
Roman  architecture,  Renaissance  and  baroque  architecture, 
and,  especially,  modern  architecture,  can  receive  the  exposi- 


xxii  AUTHORS'   PREFACE 

tion  to  which  their  influence  and  their  diffusion  entitle  therri. 
The  modern  historian,  like  Chesterton's  modern  poet,  gives 
his  subjects  not  halters  and  halos,  but  voices. 

In  the  apportionment  of  space  in  this  book  there  is  a  de- 
parture from  the  tendency  of  older  works  to  discuss  ancient 
styles  at  great  length  and  pass  over  recent  developments  with 
few  words.  Here  it  has  been  thought  better  to  give  progres- 
sively greater  emphasis  and  space  as  modern  times  are  ap- 
proached. No  date  is  suggested  as  marking  a  supposed 
death  of  traditional  art;  on  the  contrary,  the  development 
is  followed  to  the  present  day,  in  a  belief  in  unending  creative 
vitality.  Thus  it  is  hoped  that  the  professional  architect  and 
others  already  familiar  with  the  subject  may  still  find  new 
matter  of  interest  to  them. 

In  accordance  with  the  usage  of  most  recent  writers,  the 
term  Renaissance  architecture  is  confined  to  buildings  of  the 
Renaissance  in  its  more  restricted  sense  (to  about  1550  or 
1600),  and  is  not  extended  to  cover  the  later  developments 
of  classical  forms.  The  need  of  a  general  designation  for  all 
of  the  works  of  the  following  period,  whether  academic  or 
free  in  character,  is  a  strong  one.  German  and  Italian 
scholars  have  attempted  to  include  them  all  by  an  extension 
of  the  term  baroque  architecture,  but  such  an  extension  is 
a  departure  from  the  original  sense  of  baroque  and  a  viola- 
tion both  of  French  and  of  English  usage.  In  consequence 
the  authors  have  ventured  to  propose  a  new  term  which  is 
self-explanatory :  post-Renaissance  architecture. 

The  attempt  has  been  made  to  present  each  style  as  a  thing 
of  growth  and  change,  rather  than  as  a  formula  based  on  the 
monuments  of  some  supposed  apogee,  with  respect  to  which 
the  later  forms  have  too  often  been  treated  as  corrupt. 
The  general  development  of  the  style  is  first  sketched 
with  little  description  of  individual  monuments,  and  these  are 
then  illustrated  and  discussed  more  at  length  in  sections 
devoted  to  the  development  of  single  forms  and  types. 

A  chronological  outline  is  added  to  each  chapter,  with  a 
bibliographical  note,  including  references  to  more  extended 
guides  to  the  literature  of  the  subject. 

The  illustrations  have  been  selected,  in  conformity  with 
recent  tendencies  both  in  architecture  and  in  archaeology,  to 


AUTHORS'   PREFACE  xxiii 

show  not  merely  isolated  details  and  monuments,  but  the 
ensemble.  Those  which  are  not  from  photographs  are  re- 
produced, so  far  as  possible,  from  the  original  sources,  as 
noted  in  the  list  of  illustrations.  To  the  owners  of  copy- 
rights who  have  courteously  permitted  the  use  of  their  ma- 
terial the  authors  extend  cordial  thanks;  also  to  Messrs. 
B.  T.  Batsford,  Ltd.,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  Doubleday,  Page 
&  Co.,  and  the  Macmillan  Co.,  for  permission  to  reproduce 
other  material.  Messrs.  Cram  and  Ferguson,  Charles  A. 
Platt,  and  Frank  Lloyd  Wright,  as  well  as  the  American 
Academy  at  Rome  and  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  have 
kindly  furnished  photographs  which  would  otherwise  not  have 
been  obtainable.  Certain  plates  which  could  not  be  repro- 
duced directly  have  been  drawn  by  Mr.  M.  B.  Gulick  and 
Mr.  A.  P.  Evans,  Jr. 

The  portion  of  the  book  which  deals  with  the  Middle  Ages 
(Chapters  VI  to  IX)  has  been  written  by  Mr.  Edgell;  the 
portion  which  deals  with  ancient  and  modern  times,  together 
with  the  chapters  on  Eastern  architecture,  by  Mr.  Kimball. 

F.  K. 

G.  H.  E. 


A    HISTORY 
OF   ARCHITECTURE 


A   HISTORY 
OF   ARCHITECTURE 

CHAPTER   I 
THE    ELEMENTS    OF   ARCHITECTURE 

From  the  beginning  of  its  history  architecture  has  had  a 
threefold  problem  or  aim:  to  build  structures  at  once  com- 
modious, strong,  and  satisfying  to  the  artistic  sense.  Each 
of  the  phases  of  the  problem  offers  its  own  possibilities  and 
difficulties,  rooted  in  natural  conditions  and  universal  human 
traits,  and  thus  to  a  certain  degree  constant.  As  an  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  the  varied  historical  solutions  of 
the  problem  of  architecture  these  constant  factors  deserve  a 
brief  discussion. 

The  primary,  compelling  need,  which  brought  and  still 
brings  the  majority  of  buildings  into  existence,  is  of  course  the 
need  of  inclosed  space  sheltered  from  the  weather.  A  roofed 
area,  surrounded  by  walls,  requires  also  certain  other  elements 
for  practical  usefulness — doors,  windows,  chimneys.  In  all 
but  the  simplest  buildings  there  must  be  interior  partitions, 
separating  rooms  intended  for  various  uses,  and  accommodated 
to  these  uses  in  their  sizes  and  relationships.  When  these 
rooms  are  numerous,  or  occupy  several  stories,  the  provision  of 
light  and  of  intercommunication  becomes  complicated.  To 
secure  good  light  throughout  the  interior,  the  masses  of 
building  must  be  kept  relatively  thin  or  the  rooms  must  be 
grouped  about  interior  courts  of  greater  or  less  area.  In 
primitive  buildings  there  may  be  no  strict  division  of  the 


2  A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

functions  of  different  rooms  and  courts,  and  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  pass  through  a  number  intended  for  one  use  to  reach 
one  intended  for  other  uses.  In  more  advanced  construction 
the  functions  become  specialized,  and  a  distinct  class  of  ele- 
ments of  communication  is  created.  Corridors  and  stair- 
halls  provide  means  of  circulation  which  do  not  disturb 
the  privacy  of  individual  apartments.  The  provisions  for 
the  reception  of  strangers  and  for  the  carrying  on  of  the 
service  of  the  establishment  are  then  also  separated  from  the 
private  portions  of  the  building. 

Like  these  gradations  in  complexity  of  function,  there  are 
also  gradations  in  geometrical  organization,  which  affect 
convenience  as  well  as  appearance.  The  elements  of  the 
plan — rooms  and  courts — may  be  of  quite  irregular  shape, 
juxtaposed  without  attention  to  their  mutual  relationships 
or  to  the  resulting  general  outline.  Elsewhere  they  may  be 
made  predominantly  rectangular,  the  outline  may  be  brought 
to  some  regular  geometrical  form,  and  communications  be- 
tween the  elements  may  be  provided  at  points  on  their 
several  axes.  A  further  degree  of  organization  may  result 
from  the  carrying  through  of  a  general  axis  of  symmetry 
common  to  the  principal  elements  of  the  building,  or  possibly 
from  the  establishing  of  two  or  more  important  axes,  usually 
at  right  angles.  In  the  most  highly  developed  buildings  there 
may  be  a  multitude  of  minor  axes,  related  to  these  main  axes 
and  forming  with  them  a  complex  but  orderly  system.  Such 
schemes  permit  a  clear  oversight  of  the  components  of  the 
whole,  and  a  mental  grasp  of  the  arrangement,  without  which 
it  might  prove  only  a  confused  labyrinth. 

Essential  even  to  mere  provision  of  inclosed  space,  as  well 
as  to  resistance  against  the  various  forces  of  disintegration, 
is  a  sufficient  measure  of  strength.  In  the  simplest  of  all 
forms  of  construction,  a  solid  wall,  the  only  tendency  is  for 
weight  above  to  compress  or  crush  the  material  below  or  to 
force  it  out  at  the  sides.  The  remedy  is  to  increase  the  sur- 
face over  which  a  given  pressure  acts  by  thickening  the  wall 
until  safety  is  amply  attained.  With  foundations,  where  the 
soil  is  compressible,  it  is  equally  essential  that  the  pressure 
shall  everywhere  have  the  same  relation  to  the  bearing  power 
of  the  soil,  otherwise  unequal  settlements  and  cracks  will 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF  ARCHITECTURE       3 

result.  As  in  any  wall  or  pier  the  stones  at  the  bottom  have 
manifestly  more  weight  to  sustain  than  those  above,  there  is 
a  logical  satisfaction  and  often  a  real  necessity  for  making  a 
wall  thicker  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  either  by  occasional 
increases  or  by  a  constant  slope.  Ordinarily  the  margin  of 
safety  allowed  is  so  great  that  the  mere  weight  of  the  material 
itself,  except  in  very  high  walls,  does  not  actually  necessitate 
a  slope,  and  other  considerations,  practical  or  artistic,  may 
render  it  undesirable.  Thus  it  is  more  usual  to  find  vertical 
surfaces  with  increases  of  thickness  only  where  concentrated 
weights,  such  as  those  of  floors,  must  be  upheld.  Another 
occasion  for  increasing  the  thickness  occurs  when  a  material 
of  greater  compressive  strength  rests  upon  a  weaker  material, 
as  when  a  story  of  cut  stone  rests  on  a  basement  of  rubble  or 
a  foundation  wall  upon  ordinary  soil.  These  conditions  are 
frequently  responsible  for  the  existence  and  the  forms  of 
horizontal  moldings — string  courses  or  belt  courses  as  they 
are  called — at  the  level  of  floors  or  at  the  junction  of  different 
materials  and  at  the  base. 

Instead  of  a  continuous  wall  there  may  be  a  series  of  isolated 
supports — circular  columns  or  piers  of  other  forms.  With 
columns  even  more  than  with  walls  it  is  usual  to  find  an 
increase  of  diameter  toward  the  base  or  a  "diminution"  toward 
the  top.  Here,  also,  it  is  common  to  find  transitional  mem- 
bers, the  capital  supporting  the  load  above,  the  base  spread- 
ing the  weight  on  the  substructure. 

Where  openings  are  to  be  spanned,  either  in  a  wall  or  be- 
tween isolated  supports,  new  problems  arise.  In  a  beam  or 
lintel  supported  only  at  its  ends  the  action  of  gravity  pro- 
duces not  only  the  usual  crushing  tendency  upon  those  por- 
tions which  bear  on  its  supports,  and  which  must  be  made 
large  enough  to  resist  this,  but  also  produces  a  tendency  to 
shear  the  beam  across  just  at  the  point  where  the  support  ceases 
and  a  tendency  to  bend  and  finally  to  break  it  in  mid-span. 
Against  both  these  tendencies,  stone,  with  its  crystalline  or 
granular  structure,  offers  a  resistance  very  feeble  relatively 
to  its  weight.  The  tendency  to  break  increases  much  more 
rapidly  than  the  distance  spanned,  and  the  difficulty  and  cost 
of  getting  larger  blocks  likewise  increases  beyond  all  pro- 
portion. Thus  stone  lintels  can  be  used  but  rarely  for  span- 


4  A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

ning  intervals  of  more  than  ten  feet,  and  a  clear  span  of 
twenty-four  feet  is  the  extreme  instance.  The  lightness  and 
fibrous  nature  of  wood,  on  the  contrary,  make  it  well  fitted  to 
span  long  distances,  provided  the  weight  above  be  not  too 
great.  Iron  and  steel  have  in  modern  times  made  possible 
beams  of  immensely  greater  strength  and  span  at  relatively 
small  cost. 

When  masonry  is  to  be  used  to  bridge  wide  openings,  or  in 
any  case  when  only  small  stones  or  brick  are  at  command,  some 
form  of  arch  must  be  employed,  and  a  new  element  of  dis- 
integration, horizontal  thrust,  appears.  A  rudimentary 
form  of  arch  is  the  corbeled  arch,  built  up  in  horizontal 
courses,  each  projecting  somewhat  in  front  of  the  course 
below,  finally  meeting  over  the  center  of  the  opening.  The 
true  arch  differs  from  this  in  having  radiating  joints,  being 
composed,  in  principle,  of  wedge-shaped  blocks  called  vous- 
soirs.  It  may  be  semicircular,  elliptical,  or  pointed — of  tall 
or  squat  proportions.  The  weight  of  the  crown  of  the  arch 
tends  to  push  the  two  sides  apart  with  a  force  which  is  rela- 
tively greater  in  broad,  low  arches  than  in  tall,  narrow  ones. 
The  sides  require  to  be  abutted  by  masses  of  earth  or  masonry, 
to  be  brought  into  equilibrium  by  the  counter  thrust  of  other 
arches,  or,  failing  these  methods,  to  be  connected  by  a  tie- 
rod.  In  a  continuous  arcade,  or  series  of  arches  resting  on 
piers  or  columns,  the  thrusts  neutralize  each  other  and  pro- 
duce merely  vertical  pressure  on  all  the  intermediate  supports. 
A  massive  abutment  is  thus  needed  only  at  the  ends,  and  the 
intervening  piers  may  be  more  slender. 

Covering  the  spaces  inclosed  by  the  walls  are  the  roofs, 
which  take  on  a  multitude  of  forms  influenced  by  the  climate, 
the  materials,  and  the  shapes  below.  Only  in  a  rainless 
climate  can  roofs  be  perfectly  flat  and  joints  penetrate  them 
without  any  overlapping  protection.  Under  all  other  con- 
ditions there  must  be  a  slope  of  greater  or  less  degree  to 
carry  off  the  water  from  rain  or  melting  snow.  If  there  is  a 
continuous  impervious  covering  like  clay,  tar,  or  soldered  ' 
metal,  the  slope  may  be  almost  imperceptible,  and  the  roof 
may  still  form  a  terrace,  reasonably  flat.  If  the  covering 
material  is  of  small,  overlapping  pieces  like  shingles,  slate, 
or  tiles,  the  roof,  to  insure  the  shedding  of  water,  must  have  a 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF  ARCHITECTURE       5' 

pronounced  inclination.  Where  there  is  a  deep  fall  of  snow 
it  is  necessary  either  to  make  the  roofs  strong  enough  to  sup- 
port a  great  weight  or  steep  enough  to  throw  off  the  snow 
before  it  accumulates  dangerously.  To  assume  merely  that 
southern  climates  demand  flatter  roofs  and  northern  ones 
steeper  roofs  is  obviously  too  inaccurate  a  generalization. 
The  climate,  in  most  cases,  is  a  less  important  factor  than  the 
covering  material.  The  form  of  the  roof  may  also  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  shape  of  the  areas  to  be  covered  or,  con- 
versely, the  form  of  roof  once  adopted  may  govern  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  plan.  A  pitched  or  sloping  roof  requires 
relatively  narrow  and  uniform  buildings  if  the  ridge  is  not  to 
rise  wastefully  high  and  the  form  is  not  to  become  over- 
complex.  A  terraced  roof  permits  the  masses  of  building  to 
be  of  any  shape  and  size.  In  either  case  there  are  practical 
as  well  as  artistic  reasons  for  a  special  treatment  where  roof 
and  wall  meet  With  a  terraced  roof  there  is  need  of  a 
parapet,  breast-high;  with  a  sloping  roof  there  is  need  of  a 
projecting  cornice,  to  support  a  gutter  or  to  keep  the  drip 
from  the  eaves  clear  of  the  walls. 

The  support  of  the  roof  and  its  form  on  the  interior  raise 
further  questions.  If  the  width  is  small,  beams  may  span 
directly  from  wall  to  wall,  or  two  sets  of  inclined  rafters, 
resting  on  the  walls,  may  meet  at  the  ridge.  With  greater 
widths  there  must  either  be  intermediate  supports,  or  trusses 
of  wood  or  metal  members  so  framed  and  braced  as  to  be  self- 
supporting  over  a  wide  span;  or  else,  instead  of  either,  there 
must  be  vaults  of  arched  masonry.  Vaults  have  the  advantage 
of  resisting  fire,  but  they  have  horizontal  thrusts  which  re- 
quire suitable  abutment.  Vaults  of  continuous  hemispherical 
or  semi-cylindrical  form — domes  or  barrel  vaults — necessitate 
a  continuous  abutment  by  thick  walls.  Vaults  composed  of 
intersecting  surfaces  or  resting  on  arches,  however,  may 
have  their  thrusts  concentrated  at  a  few  points,  where  they 
may  be  met  by  walls  or  projecting  buttresses  which  are  more 
efficiently  disposed.  Sometimes  there  is  but  a  single  covering 
to  the  building:  a  roof  construction  of  beams  and  trusses 
appears  on  the  interior,  or  vaults  show  their  forms  directly 
on  the  exterior.  More  often,  however,  greater  freedom  is 
desired  to  adapt  exterior  and  interior  coverings  to  their  dif- 


6  A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

ferent  functions.  Thus  ceilings  may  be  introduced  below  the 
roof  beams,  or  independent  roofs  constructed  above  the 
vaults. 

Along  with  the  desire  for  strength  and  practical  usefulness 
goes  often  a  conscious  striving  for  artistic  effect.  Even  in  the 
most  utilitarian  buildings,  indeed,  there  must  always  be  a 
certain  measure  of  choice  in  the  selection  of  materials  or  of 
forms.  Thus  there  is  inevitably  some  expression  of  prefer- 
ences which  are,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  artistic.  It 
is  the  sum  of  such  expressions,  partly  of  conscious  preference, 
partly  of  traditional  usage,  partly  of  natural  conditions  and 
practical  necessity,  which  constitutes  the  artistic  character  of  a 
structure. 

The  artistic  ideas  which  may  be  thus  expressed  are  of  many 
different  sorts.  The  adaptation  of  the  building  to  its  practical 
functions,  the  purpose  and  relationships  of  its  various  parts, 
may  be  made  clear.  The  specific  character — religious,  civic, 
military,  commemorative — may  be  emphasized.  The  nature 
of  the  environment  may  be  mirrored  in  picturesqueness  or 
formality  of  design.  The  size  or  "scale"  of  the  building  may 
be  unmistakably  declared  through  features  the  size  of  which 
bears  a  necessary  relation  to  the  materials  used  or  to  the 
human  figure.  The  treatment  of  the  materials  themselves 
may  be  such  as  to  bring  out  all  their  characteristic  possibilities 
of  color,  texture,  or  veining.  The  principles  of  the  structural 
system  may  be  revealed  and  the  raison  d'etre  of  every  detail 
made  evident.  Finally  there  are  the  ideas  of  pure  form, 
expressed  in  the  mere  sizes,  shapes,  colors,  and  light  and 
shade.  This  domain  of  pure  form  is  the  one  which  archi- 
tecture shares  with  painting  and  sculpture.  In  architecture, 
however,  the  forms  are  not  representative,  but  abstract  and 
geometrical,  and  there  is,  besides,  one  possibility  which  none 
of  the  other  arts  possesses.  It  is  that  of  creating  forms  of 
interior  space,  within  which  the  observer  stands.  In  all  these 
architectural  expressions  and  in  their  mutual  relationships 
there  may  be  a  greater  or  a  less  degree  of  consistency,  har- 
mony, and  interest.  Certain  expressions  are  even  incom- 
patible with  others,  and  each  fusion  of  expressions  in  a  single 
building  involves  the  sacrifice  of  many  others,  and  is  a  unique 
creation. 


THE   ELEMENTvS   OP  ARCHITECTURE       7 

At  a  given  period  or  in  a  given  region,  however,  many  of 
the  elements  remain  constant.  The  use  of  certain  materials 
or  constructive  systems  may  be  imposed  by  the  geologic 
formation,  by  climatic  conditions,  or  by  the  isolation  of  the 
inhabitants.  Even  if  there  are  few  restrictions  of  this  sort, 
there  will  be  the  force  of  custom,  perpetuating  a  thousand 
peculiarities  and  methods  of  varied  origin.  Often  there  will 
be  also  the  influence  of  older  and  of  neighboring  civilizations, 
steadily  exercised  in  definite  directions.  Thus  it  comes  about 
that,  in  the  expression  of  their  artistic  instincts,  the  men  of 
one  time  and  one  place  have  a  common  vocabulary  of  forms 
and  tend  to  speak  a  common  architectural  language,  in  the 
same  way  that  they  tend  to  employ  a  common  spoken  lan- 
guage. It  is  these  architectural  languages,  varying  in  every 
country  and  province  and  in  every  generation,  which  we  mean 
when  we  speak  of  the  historic  styles  of  architecture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 
Works  dealing  with  the  elements  and  theory  of  architecture 

A  popular  work  in  English  is  J.  Belcher's  Essentials  in  Architecture, 
1907.  Others  addressed  to  a  more  professional  audience  are  J.  B. 
Robinson's  Architectural  Composition,  1908,  and  J.  V.  Van  Pelt's 
Essentials  of  Composition,  26.  ed.,  191,3.  Systematic  and  fundamen- 
tal discussions  occur  in  J.  Guadet's  Elements  et  theorie  de  V architecture, 
4  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1909,  and  L.  Cloquet's  Traite  d' architecture,  5  vols., 
1898-1901.  The  Handbuch  der  Architektur  contains  similar  material: 
pt.  I,  vol.  2,  Die  Bauformenlehre  by  J.  Buhlman,  2d  ed.,  1901; 
and  pt.  IV,  vol.  i,  Architektonische  Komposition  by  H.  Wagner  and 
others,  3d  ed.,  1904. 

2 


CHAPTER   II 
PREHISTORIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Prom  the  origins  of  mankind  in  the  mists  of  the  preglacial 
period  down  to  the  beginnings  of  recorded  history  there  was 
a  gradual  development  lasting  over  great  periods  of  time. 
The  steps  in  the  development  were  much  the  same  among  dif- 
ferent peoples,  although  their  degrees  of  advancement  at  a 
given  time  varied  greatly.  Men  passed  through  successive 
ages  in  which  stone,  bronze,  and  iron  were  used  for  tools  and 
weapons,  and  in  which  corresponding  advances  were  made 
in  other  branches  of  culture.  The  Egyptians  and  the  peoples 
of  Mesopotamia  had  already  completed  this  development 
while  the  inhabitants  of  central  Europe  were  still  in  the  stone 
age,  and  Europeans  in  their  turn  have  found  the  American 
Indians  and  other  peoples  still  ignorant  of  bronze  and  iron. 
It  is  thus  in  central  Europe  that  we  are  best  able  to  trace  the 
changes  which,  in  more  favored  regions,  took  place  at  a  much 
earlier  time,  and  which  in  less  favored  regions  are  still  in- 
complete. 

The  stone  age.  During  the  earlier  stone  age,  the  paleo- 
lithic period,  when  instruments  were  still  crudely  chipped, 
men  lived  by  hunting  and  fishing.  They  dwelt  in  caves  or 
dugouts,  or  in  tents  of  poles  and  hides.  In  the  later  stone 
age,  or  neolithic  period,  when  they  had  learned  to  polish 
stone  implements,  to  raise  cattle,  and  till  the  soil,  new  methods 
of  housing  were  added.  Huts  were  built  of  poles  and  reeds 
plastered  with  clay,  with  thatched  roofs.  Sometimes  the 
floors  of  these  were  raised  above  the  ground  on  piles,  for 
protection  against  hostile  attack,  as  well  as  against  animals 
and  vermin.  Sometimes  the  huts  were  even  built  on  piles 
over  the  water.  In  the  Swiss  and  Italian  lakes  there  were 
whole  villages  of  these  pile  dwellings,  the  remains  of  which 


PREHISTORIC  ARCHITECTURE 


show  the  rudimentary  beginnings  of  carpentry.  The  dwell- 
ings were  already  surpassed  in  importance  at  this  time,  how- 
ever, by  sepulchers  of  the  dead  and  religious  monuments. 
These  were  of  -stone,  usually  not  composed  of  many  small 
pieces,  but  "megalithic" — of  enormous  blocks  which  singly 
sufficed  for  a  wall  or  roof.  Tomb  chambers  were  made  of  a 
pair  of  such  blocks  with  a  covering  slab — constituting  what 


'ESfjgfvaj 

"^fffm 


FIG.    I — STONEHENGE.      (RESTORED   BY   HARTMANN) 

are  called  dolmens.  Sometimes  these  were  buried  beneath 
a  mound  of  earth,  or  were  preceded  by  a  covered  corridor. 
Other  monuments,  which  may  well  have  had  a  religious 
significance,  are  the  menhirs,  or  single  standing  pillars,  and 
the  cromlechs,  or  circles  of  stones.  A  menhir  in  Brittany  had 
the  extreme  height  of  seventy  feet.  The  most  famous  of  the 
cromlechs  is  at  Stonehenge  near  Salisbury  in  England  (Fig.  i). 
It  had  two  concentric  circles  of  tall  standing  stones,  with 
lintels  resting  on  them,  minor  circles  of  smaller  stones  just 
inside  of  each,  and  a  great  "altar  stone"  within. 

The  ages  of  bronze  and  iron.  With  the  discovery  of  the  art 
of  working  metals  began  the  bronze  age,  which  made  possible 
more  advanced  works  of  carpentry  and  masonry.  This  oc- 


io         A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

curred  in  central  Europe  about  2000  B.C.  Following  villages 
of  improved  pile  dwellings  on  land,  such  as  the  terramare 
of  Italy  with  their  walls  and  moats,  came  huts  once  more 
resting  on  the  ground.  These  were  at  first  circular  or  oval, 
but  they  gradually  assumed  a  rectangular  shape.  The 
conical  or  domical  roofs  of  the  earliest  huts  were  later  re- 
placed, in  northern  climates,  by  a  pitch  roof  with  a  longi- 
tudinal ridge.  The  introduction  of  iron,  which  took  place 
in  central  Europe  about  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  made  but 
little  change  in  the  manner  of  building.  Architecture  there 
remained  essentially  primitive  until  it  was  influenced  by  off- 
shoots of  the  highly  developed  styles  which  grew  up  about  the 
eastern  Mediterranean.  To  study  their  rise  will  be  the 
object  of  the  following  chapter. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

A  comprehensive  and  authoritative  work  on  prehistoric  architect- 
ure is  lacking.  Monographs  on  individual  sites  and  monuments 
abound,  too  numerous  to  be  listed  here.  Reference  must  be  made 
to  certain  general  works  covering  the  prehistoric  period,  such  as 
Sir  John  Lubbock's  Prehistoric  Times,  yth  ed.,  1913;  M.  Hoernes's 
Primitive  Man,  English  translation,  1900  (Temple  Primers);  and 
Urgeschichte  der  Kultur,  3  vols.,  1912  (Sammlung  Goschen);  or  to 
works  which  cover  limited  regions.  Hoernes's  Urgeschichte  der 
bildenden  Kunst,  2d  ed.,  1915,  and  E.  A.  Parkyn's  Prehistoric  Art, 
1915,  unfortunately  do  not  include  architecture.  For  the  develop- 
ment in  prehistoric  Europe,  principally  dealt  with  in  this  chapter, 
see,  above  all,  J.  Dechelette's  Manuel  d'archeologie  prehistorique, 
celtique  et  romaine,  2  vols.,  1908  ff.  (primarily  devoted  to  France, 
but  with  some  references  to  other  countries  and  full  bibliographical 
notes),  and  S.  Miiller's  Urgeschichte  Europas:  Grundzuge  einer  pra- 
historischen  Archaologie,  translated  from  the  Danish,  1905;  French 
translation:  L 'Europe  prehistorique,  1907.  For  England  consult 
R.  Munro's  Prehistoric  Britain,  1914  (Home  University  Library), 
T.  R.  Holmes 's  Ancient  Britain,  1907,  or  B.  C.  A.  Windle's  Remains 
of  the  Prehistoric  Age  in  England,  1904.  On  the  pile  dwellings  see 
R.  Munro's  The  Lake  Dwellings  of  Europe,  1890. 


CHAPTER   III 
PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE 

EGYPT 

The  first  notable  development  of  architecture  was  reached 
in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Nile.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
third  millennium  before  Christ,  when  the  earliest  of  the  great 
Egyptian  royal  tombs  were  building  under  a  strong  central- 
ized rule,  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  seems 
not  yet  to  have  possessed  any  monuments  comparable  to 
them  in  workmanship  or  magnitude,  The  Great  Pyramid, 
built  by  Khufu  as  his  own  burial-place  in  the  years  following 
2800  B.C.,  is  not  only  the  most  considerable  of  all  architectural 
works  in  bulk,  but  one  of  the  most  perfect  in  execution. 
Although  over  seven  hundred  and  fifty  feet  on  a  side,  it  was 
laid  out  with  such  accuracy  that  Petrie  reports  its  diver- 
gencies from  exactness  in  equality  of  sides,  in  squareness,  and 
in  level,  no  greater  than  his  own  probable  error  in  measuring 
it  with  the  most  modern  surveying  instruments. 

General  characteristics.  The  course  of  excavations  has  re- 
vealed a  variety  in  Egyptian  art,  during  its  three  thousand 
years  of  active  life,  quite  different  from  the  uniformity  which 
was  at  first  supposed  to  exist,  yet  it  is  possible  to  summarize 
certain  enduring  characteristics  of  its  architecture.  This 
was  largely  conditioned  by  religious  beliefs,  which  demanded 
the  utmost  grandeur  and  permanence  for  tombs  and  temples, 
the  residences  of  the  dead  and  of  the  gods,  in  contrast  with  the 
light  and  relatively  temporary  houses  which  sufficed  for  even 
the  greatest  of  the  living.  Such  permanence  was  sought  by 
the  almost  exclusive  employment  of  fine  stone,  which  the 
cliffs  of  the  Nile  Valley  furnished  in  abundance,  and  by  the 
adoption,  as  the  dominant  constructive  types,  of  the  simple 


12          A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

mass,  and  of  the  column  and  the  lintel.  The  arch,  occasion- 
ally used  from  the  earliest  times,  was  confined  to  substructures 
where  it  had  ample  abutment  and  was  little  in  view.  The 
architectural  members,  moreover,  were  generally  of  great 
size  and  massiveness,  although  sometimes  of  extreme  refine- 
ment and  in  certain  cases  even  of  delicacy.  Traditional  ele- 
ments of  composition  in  plan  recurred  in  many  types  of 
buildings.  These  were  the  open  court,  often  surrounded  by  a 
continuous  interior  colonnade  or  peristyle,  and  the  rectangular 
room  opening  on  its  broader  front,  with  its  ceiling  supported 
by  columns.  With  the  flat  roofs  which  the  rainless  climate 
permitted,  rooms  could  be  juxtaposed  without  any  other 
restraint  than  the  necessity  of  light.  Partly  as  a  consequence 
of  religious  beliefs,  partly  doubtless  from  natural  preference, 
the  architectural  members  were  usually  covered  with  sculpture 
in  relief,  everywhere  blazing  with  harmonious  color.  Archi- 
tecture formed  an  equal  union  with  sculpture  and  painting. 
The  rich  flora  of  the  Nile,  especially  the  lotus  and  the  papyrus, 
furnished  the  principal  motives  of  ornament,  and  even  sug- 
gested the  form  of  structural  members. 

Development.  The  architecture  of  Egypt,  from  its  earliest 
traces  to  the  Christian  era,  shows  a  continuity  of  character 
never  destroyed  and  scarcely  interrupted  by  any  foreign  in- 
fluence. The  early  Semitic  invasion  from  Asia  by  which  the 
structure  of  the  Egyptian  language  is  explained  must  have 
taken  place  long  before  our  remotest  knowledge.  The  varied 
development  of  Egyptian  art  was  essentially  a  native  one, 
resulting  from  the  interaction  and  successive  supremacy  of  a 
number  of  local  schools,  raised  to  prominence  by  the  political 
importance  of  their  centers. 

Thinite  period.  The  earliest  of  these  schools  to  attain  a 
general  predominence  was  that  of  This,  a  city  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  way  from  the  Delta  to  the  First  Cataract.  This 
became  the  capital  of  Menes,  who  first  succeeded  in  bringing 
under  one  rule  the  earlier  kingdoms  of  the  north  and  the 
south  about  3400  B.C.  His  successors  of  the  First  and 
Second  Dynasties,  so-called,  lived  here  for  perhaps  four 
hundred  years.  The  slight  remains  of  architecture  preserved 
from  this  period  indicate  a  primitive  condition.  Sun-dried 
brick  wa.s  the  principal  material,  although  stone  masonry  and 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  13 

even  the  arch  were  soon  introduced.  The  rudimentary  forms 
of  the  tomb  and  of  the  temple  display  a  similarity  to  the  form 
of  the  house  which  persists  fundamentally  even  in  later  times 
and  indicates  a  common  derivation  from  the  simple  dwellings 
of  the  people. 

Memphite  period,  or  "Old  Kingdom"  With  the  transference 
of  the  seat  of  government  to  Memphis,  a  little  south  of  modern 
Cairo,  began  the  first  of  the  great  flowerings  of  Egyptian  art. 
Under  the  kings  of  the  Third  Dynasty  the  royal  tombs  grad- 
ually took  the  form  of  pyramids,  and  with  the  first  king  of  the 
Fourth  Dynasty,  Khufu,  came  the  culmination  of  Memphite 
architecture  in  the  Great  Pyramid  at  Gizeh  (Fig.  2).  The 
buildings  of  this  king  and  his  immediate  successors  of  the 
"Old  Kingdom"  set  a  standard  of  size  and  workmanship 
never  afterward  equaled.  The  architectural  forms,  though 
simple,  were  of  the  greatest  refinement.  The  colonnade  was 
employed  in  the  courts  and  the  halls  of  temples,  and  the 
characteristic  and  beautiful  "papyrus"  or  "lotus  bud"  column 
first  made  its  appearance.  After  a  gradual  decline  Memphis 
lost  its  importance  with  the  close  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty.  A 
period  of  relative  barrenness  ensued,  from  which  emerged 
about  2160  B.C.  the  powerful  monarchs  of  the  eleventh  and 
later  dynasties  whose  reigns  constitute  the  "Middle  King- 
dom." Their  seat  was  Thebes,  again  in  Upper  Egypt,  a  little 
south  of  This. 

Theban  period:  "Middle  Kingdom"  and  "Empire."  With 
them  began  the  long  supremacy  of  Theban  art,  which  domi- 
nated the  development  of  Egyptian  architecture,  directly  or 
indirectly,  to  the  end  of  its  history  under  the  Romans.  The 
invasion  of  the  Asiatic  "Hyksos"  who  overran  the  country 
caused  an  interim  from  about  1675  to  1575,  but  the  empire 
which  followed  picked  up  the  thread  almost  at  the  point 
where  the  Middle  Kingdom  had  dropped  it.  Though  the 
buildings  previous  to  the  invasion  have  been  mostly  swept 
away  by  subsequent  rulers,  they  apparently  furnished  the 
prototypes  of  the  temple  and  other  buildings  in  their  later 
form.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  invaders  followed  the  age  of 
greatest  splendor,  under  the  monarchs  of  the  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  Dynasties,  whose  monuments,  reaching  from  the 
Fourth  Cataract  to  the  Euphrates,  furnish  the  usual  idea  of 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  15 

Egyptian  architecture.  In  the  three  hundred  and  fifty  years 
following  1500  B.C.  were  built  the  great  temples  of  Der-el- 
Bahri,  of  Abu  Simbel,  and  of  Medinet  Habu,  the  delicate 
shrines  of  Elephantine,  the  superb  halls  and  courts  of  Karnak 
and  Luxor,  the  tombs  of  the  valleys  behind  Thebes — half, 
perhaps,  of  all  that  has  been  saved  of  Egyptian  architecture. 
Columnar  architecture  was  magnified  to  a  scale  seldom  equaled. 
Columns  sixty  to  seventy  feet  high  in  a  few  instances,  with 
lintels  of  a  clear  span  of  twenty-four  feet,  were  among  the 
structural  triumphs  of  this  relatively  brief  period  of  world 
empire  and  artistic  magnificence.  At  its  close  the  artistic 
impulse  had  spent  itself.  The  buildings  of  Ramses  III., 
last  of  the  great  imperial  Pharaohs,  already  show  heaviness  of 
design  and  carelessness  of  execution.  Under  the  kaleidoscopic 
usurping  dynasties  that  shortly  followed — Tanite,  Libyan,  and 
Nubian — only  an  isolated  monarch  now  and  then  had  power 
to  attempt  a  revival  of  the  splendors  of  the  imperial  ar- 
chitecture. 

Saite  period.  In  the  midst  of  political  decadence,  however, 
a  new  artistic  fermentation  was  beginning.  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Assyrian  conquerors,  about  660  B.C.,  under  the  rulers 
of  Sais  in  the  Delta,  art  sprang  again  into  vigorous  activity 
such  as  it  had  not  known  for  five  hundred  years.  Although 
the  policy  of  these  astute  monarchs  was  everywhere  to  restore 
the  Theban  culture,  even  to  revert  to  the  style  of  the  Old 
Kingdom,  the  originality  of  their  artists  was  not  to  be  denied, 
and  new  and  beautiful  modifications  resulted.  Persian 
domination  followed,  and  the  architecture  of  the  period  suf- 
fered almost  complete  destruction;  but  we  can  trace  its 
innovations  in  the  elaborate  and  diverse  columns  of  the  tem- 
ples built  by  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Romans. 

Ptolemaic  and  Roman  periods.  It  was  the  character  im- 
pressed upon  it  by  the  Saite  builders  that  Egyptian  architect- 
ure retained  till  it  finally  succumbed  before  the  advent  of 
Christianity.  Greeks  and  Romans  alike  brought  their  own 
national  forms,  but  these  were  unable  to  effect  any  sub- 
stantial change  outside  of  the  cities  of  the  Delta.  The  native 
architecture  was  adopted  by  the  conquerors  themselves,  at 
least  for  the  temples  of  the  traditional  religion.  Under  the 
prestige  of  Alexandria,  Egyptian  dispositions,  clothed  in 


16          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

Greek  detail,  spread  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Egypt.  The 
peristylar  court  and  hall,  the  clerestory,  and  other  charac- 
teristic elements,  became  henceforth  international. 

The  tombs.  Throughout  this  long  history  the  most  im- 
portant monuments  were  the  tombs  and  the  temples.  Egyptian 
religious  beliefs  demanded  shelter  and  sustenance  for  the 
dead  as  well  as  for  the  living.  Hence,  in  the  tomb,  elaborate 
precautions  were  taken  for  the  preservation  of  the  body,  and 
for  the  nourishing  of  the  "ka,"  or  vital  force,  now  dissociated 
from  it.  The  forms  of  the  tomb  varied  in  different  districts, 
though  they  tended  in  every  period  to  take  the  form  custom- 
ary in  the  region  which  was  dominant  politically.  In  Lower 
Egypt  the  preference  was  for  masonry  structures  erected  on 
the  plain;  in  Upper  Egypt,  for  chambers  and  passages 
excavated  in  the  rock  of  the  valley  walls.  The  masonry 
tombs  were  alike  in  presenting  on  the  exterior  a  simple  mass 
rectangular  in  plan  and  almost  unbroken  by  openings;  they 
differed  in  geometrical  form  and  in  interior  arrangement. 

Mastabas.  The  form  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Old  Kingdom  was  the  one  employed  for  the  Memphite  nobles, 
the  so-called  "mastaba."  It  was  a  low,  flat -topped  mass, 
varying  in  size  with  the  importance  of  the  occupant,  and  hav- 
ing its  faces  sloped  back  at  an  angle  of  about  seventy-five 
degrees.  The  solid  bulk  of  the  mastaba  contained  at  first 
merely  the  filled-up  shaft  to  the  tomb  chamber  below,  and  a 
small  chapel  for  offerings.  Later  the  upper  chambers  were 
multiplied  for  ceremonial  and  for  the  storage  of  provisions 
and  household  utensils. 

Pyramids.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Memphite  dynasties 
the  kings  adopted  distinctive  forms  which  approached  the 
pyramid.  The  first  king  of  the  Third  Dynasty,  Zoser,  built 
his  tomb  at  Sakkara  in  seven  great  receding  steps;  its  last 
king,  Snefru,  erected  one  at  Medum  in  three  steps,  another 
at  Dahshur  in  true  pyramidal  shape,  fixing  the  type  for  the 
rest  of  the  period.  The  most  striking  group  of  the  pyramids 
is  that  of  the  Fourth-Dynasty  necropolis  at  Gizeh.  Here 
stands  the  familiar  group  of  three  built  by  Khufu,  Khafre, 
and  Menkure — the  Cheops,  Chephren,  and  Mycerinus  of 
classical  writers.  Around  them  are  the  smaller  pyramids  of 
royalty  and  serried  lines  of  mastabas  built  by  the  nobles.  In 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  17 

the  pyramids,  as  in  the  mastabas,  the  interior  arrangements 
differ.  They  are  alike  in  having  the  tomb  chamber  elabo- 
rately safeguarded  by  granite  portcullises  and  misleading  pas- 
sages. These,  however,  uniformly  failed  to  protect  the  bodies 
against  despoilers,  often  only  a  few  generations  later.  The 
pyramids  were  preceded  by  massive  chapels  for  services  and 
offerings  and  approached  by  causeways  of  stone  leading  up 


FIG.    3 — BENI    HASAN.      PORTICO   OF    A   TOMB 

from  the  river.  By  size  and  by  the  very  simplicity  of  their 
form  these  greatest  of  Egyptian  monuments  make  an  un- 
rivaled impression  of  grandeur  and  power. 

Rock-cut  tombs.  Under  the  Theban  monarchs  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom  the  existing  local  types  of  Middle  and 
Upper  Egypt  were  developed — the  pyramid-mastaba,  a  mas- 
taba  with  a  small  pyramid  on  top;  and  the  tomb  cut  in  the 
western  cliffs  (Fig.  3).  Under  the  Empire  this  last  type, 
adopted  by  the  kings,  became  by  far  the  most  employed. 
Every  wealthy  Theban  family  had  its  concealed  vault,  pre- 
ceded by  a  small  rock-cut  chapel.  To  protect  their  bodies, 
the  Pharaohs  carried  passages,  gradually  descending  and 
interrupted  by  small  chambers,  for  hundreds  of  feet  into  the 
cliffs.  Their  funerary  chapels,  however,  became  separated 
from  the  tombs  themselves.  They  were  erected  on  the  plain 
before  the  cliffs  fronting  the  river,  and  in  time  became  com- 
parable to  the  temples  of  the  gods  on  the  opposite  bank. 


i8 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


The  first  of  such  chapels,  built  by  Queen  Hatshepsut  in  the 
years  from  1500  to  1480,  is  one  of  the  most  original  and  most 
refined  of  all  Egyptian  monuments  (Fig.  4).  It  lies  in  the 
valley  known  as  Der-el-Bahri,  and  rises  in  three  great  colon- 
naded terraces  to  the  sanctuaries  cut  in  the  rock.  The 
architectural  forms  are  of  the  simplest — square  or  sixteen- 


FIG.  4 — DER-EL-BAHRI.     MORTUARY  TEMPLE  OF  HATSHEPSUT. 
(RESTORED  BY  BRUNET) 

sided  columns  in  long  ranks — but  the  proportions  are  so  just, 
the  effect  so  pure,  as  to  suggest  Greece  in  the  days  of  Pericles. 
The  temples.  In  the  form  finally  reached  under  the  Rames- 
sid  Pharaohs  of  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Dynasties, 
the  mortuary  temples  closely  resembled  the  temples  of  the 
gods,  likewise  the  product  of  a  long  evolution.  The  gods, 
like  the  dead,  required  shelter  and  food.  They  were  housed 
with  solidity  and  splendor,  and  served  by  the  provision  of 
meat  and  drink  and  diversion,  all  presented  with  increasing 
ceremonial.  As  it  was  the  Pharaoh  who  provided  the  revenue 
for  all  this,  so  it  was  he  who  in  theory  made  the  presentation. 
It  was  made,  in  fact,  by  the  priests,  his  representatives,  the 
people  participating  only  when,  on  feast-days,  the  offering 


GREAT    TEMTUE    OF     AMMON 


20          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

was  distributed  in  the  temple  court  after  being  presented  to 
the  god.  Though  many  of  the  elements  of  the  temple  seem 
to  have  been  in  use  from  the  time  of  the  Old  Kingdom,  and, 
already  in  the  Middle  Kingdom  to  have  assumed  somewhat 
their  final  relations,  it  is  only  the  temples  of  the  Empire  and 
later  times  that  are  sufficiently  preserved  to  give  a  visual  idea 
of  the  whole. 

Imperial  temples.  At  the  great  national  center  of  Amon- 
worship  at  Karnak  in  Thebes  (Fig.  5)  there  are  many  temples, 
the  product  of  long  growth.  Several  of  the  relatively  smaller 


FIG.  6 — KARNAK.   CENTRAL  AISLES  OF  THE  HYPOSTYLE  HALL  OF  THE 
GREAT  TEMPLE  OF  AMON.   MODEL  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM 


ones  well  display  the  similarities,  as  also  the  minor  diver- 
sities, found  in  the  temples  of  the  Theban  period.  Each  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  small  sanctuary  at  the  back,  flanked  by 
cells  for  the  minor  divinities  of  the  religious  triad,  by  chapels 
and  store  chambers,  and  preceded  by  a  colonnaded  hall,  the 
so-called  "hypostyle  hall"  (Fig.  6)  which  turned  its  broad 
side  to  a  square  court  surrounded  by  columns.  The  facade 
was  composed  of  a  great  doorway  between  two  tall  quad- 
rangular towers,  their  faces  sloping  back  from  the  perpendic- 
ular, together  constituting  a  "pylon."  Before  the  pylon 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  21 

stood  obelisks,  colossal  statues  of  the  king  or  the  divinity, 
and  wooden  masts  carrying  long  streamers;  before  these, 
again,  were  often  long  avenues  of  approach,  lined  with  sculp- 
tured rams  or  sphinxes.  As  one  passed  inward  from  the  sun- 
lit court,  through  halls  successively  smaller  and  lower,  the 
light  diminished  till  the  sanctuary  was  in  almost  total  dark- 
ness, admirably  calculated  to  heighten  the  effect  of  religious 
mystery  and  awe. 

Special  types.  At  the  most  important  temples,  such  as  those 
of  Amon  at  Karnak  and  Luxor,  successive  monarchs  vied  in 
multiplying  the  elements.  They  built  new  and  larger  hypostyle 
halls  and  courts  in  front  of  the  earlier  pylons,  until  in  the 
great  temple  at  Karnak,  under  the  Ptolemies,  a  seventh 
pylon  was  under  construction.  In  a  similar  way  at  Philae, 
their  favorite  shrine,  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Roman  monarchs 
built  many  courts,  pavilions,  and  the  accessory  buildings  de- 
manded by  the  late  religious  cults.  Here  the  irregularity  of 
the  island  site  forced  departures  from  the  usual  formality, 
but,  as  elsewhere  in  Egypt  in  such  cases,  ingenious  adaptation 
produced  a  composition  of  the  greatest  charm.  An  effect 
still  further  removed  from  the  heaviness  and  solemnity  usually 
associated  with  Egyptian  architecture  is  found  in  the  smallest 
temples.  One  of  these,  built  by  Amenhotep  III.  at  Elephan- 
tine, now  destroyed,  is  especially  famous  for  beauty  of  pro- 
portion and  dignified  grace. 

Dwellings.  The  Theban  palace  is  still  too  little  known  for 
cafe  generalization.  The  Pharaohs  seem  to  have  preferred 
not  to  live  in  dwellings  previously  occupied,  and  the  practice 
of  abandoning  old  palaces  for  new  ones,  hastily  improvised, 
led  to  the  employment  of  a  construction  which  has  left  but 
few  remains.  The  villa  of  Amenhotep  III.  at  Thebes  has  a 
rectangular  outer  wall  inclosing  a  labyrinth  of  small  courts, 
columned  rooms,  and  dark  cells,  all  built  of  sun-dried  brick, 
plastered  and  richly  painted.  Wall  paintings  elsewhere  show 
the  houses  of  the  wealthy,  surrounded  by  shaded  gardens. 
The  quarters  of  the  poorer  classes  were  closely  built  in  blocks, 
often  on  a  regular  plan.  Their  houses,  reduced  to  lowest 
terms,  comprised  a  small,  square  court,  along  the  back  of 
which  lay  a  rectangular  room  with  the  entrance  on  its  broad 
side. 


22          A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

The  column:  origins.  Interest  in  the  details  of  Egyptian 
architecture  centers  in  the  development  of  the  column,  which 
the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to  employ,  and  which  they 
treated  with  great  mechanical  skill  and  artistic  taste.  In  the 
Fourth  Dynasty  we  find  square  monolithic  piers,  without 
division  or  ornament  of  any  kind — the  system  of  support  and 
lintel  at  its  lowest  terms.  The  so-called  Temple  of  the 
Sphinx,  a  waiting-hall  at  the  foot  of  the  causeway  leading  to 
the  pyramid  of  Khafre,  thus  constructed,  is  effective  by  its 
proportions  and  by  the  perfection  of  its  workmanship.  By 
the  Fifth  Dynasty  we  find  the  first  circular  columns,  of 
types  common  throughout  later  Egyptian  architecture. 
The  motives  of  their  designs  were  taken  from  the  palm  and 
from  the  papyrus  or  the  lotus,  palm  leaves  being  carved  up- 
right about  the  top  of  the  shaft,  bending  gracefully  under  the 
weight  of  the  abacus,  or  the  shaft  itself  being  made  in  the 
form  of  several  lotus  or  papyrus  stems  bound  together,  the 
buds  swelling  at  the  top  to  form  the  capital. 

Later  forms.  Under  the  Middle  Kingdom  the  most  popu- 
lar form  was  a  column  abstractly  geometrical — polygonal  in 
plan,  or  with  concave  vertical  flutings.  In  either  case  it  was 
crowned  by  a  simple  square  abacus.  Such  columns,  as  at 
Beni  Hasan  and  later  Der-el-Bahri,  have  a  rough  resemblance 
to  the  Doric  columns  of  Greece,  which,  however,  seem  to 
have  been  derived  independently.  Under  the  Empire  all 
these  types  were  still  employed,  the  papyrus  or  lotus-bud 
form  leading  in  popularity,  but  a  new  type  was  given  the 
place  of  honor  in  the  tall  central  aisles  of  the  hypostyle  halls 
(Fig.  6).  This  was  the  column  with  a  capital  like  an  inverted 
bell,  imitative  of  the  flower  of  the  lotus.  A  capital  with  heads 
of  the  cow-goddess,  Hathor,  was  used  in  her  shrines,  and 
piers  fronted  by  standing  colossi  were  frequent,  especially 
under  the  great  Ramessids.  The  Saite  and  Ptolemaic  archi- 
tects elaborated  the  capitals,  especially  the  bell  capital,  by 
applying  to  the  smooth  surfaces  motives  drawn  from  native 
flora — leaves,  flowers,  buds,  in  gracefully  ordered  profusion. 
They  even  employed  different  varieties  in  the  same  colonnade, 
though  always  in  pairs,  placed  at  equal  distances  on  either 
side  of  the  axis.  No  attempt  was  made  to  develop  a  separate 
system  of  forms  to  accompany  each  type  of  column.  The 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  23 

same  type  of  cornice  is  found  with  all,  a  quarter-hollow,  or 
cavetto,  making  transition  from  the  vertical  members  to  the 
horizontal  projecting  line  of  the  roof. 

The  peristyle.  Although  many  Egyptian  halls  were  sub- 
divided by  ranges  of  columns  extending  the  full  depth  of 
the  room,  an  equally  characteristic  arrangement  was  that 
of  an  interior  peristyle,  or  continuous  surrounding  file  of 
columns.  This  arrangement,  which  was  preferred  in  the 
case  of  open  colonnaded  courts,  is  a  typically  oriental  dis- 
position, being  found  also  in  Mesopotamia  and  through- 
out the  East.  Owing  perhaps  to  the  guarded  nature  of 
Egyptian  life  and  Egyptian  cults,  a  similar  surrounding 
peristyle  was  rare  on  the  exterior.  A  single  instance  was 
the  little  temple  of  Elephantine. 

The  arch.  The  arch  form  was  used  sometimes  in  tombs 
and  notably  in  the  sanctuaries  of  the  temple  of  Seti  I.  at 
Abydos,  but  in  all  such  important  works  it  was  merely  a 
corbeled  arch,  cut  out  of  projecting  stones  in  horizontal 
courses.  True  arches  abound  in  subterranean  tomb  chambers 
from  the  time  of  the  Third  Dynasty,  apparently  as  early  as 
any  in  Mesopotamia.  The  store  chambers  of  the  Ramesseum, 
the  mortuary  temple  of  Rameses  II.  at  Thebes,  present  an 
extensive  series  of  parallel  barrel  vaults  resting  on  light  in- 
termediate walls.  For  use  in  the  superstructure,  however, 
the  true  arch  seems  to  have  been  thought  too  insecure. 

The  clerestory.  A  device  first  invented  by  the  Egyptians, 
destined  to  play  an  important  r61e  in  later  architecture,  is  the 
clerestory,  introduced  under  the  Empire.  To  light  the  wide 
hypostyle  halls,  unprovided  with  windows  at  the  outside, 
the  roof  was  raised  over  the  three  central  aisles,  admitting 
light  through  grated  openings  over  the  lower  roofs  at  the 
sides  (Fig.  6). 

Methods  of  construction.  The  Egyptian  roofs  were  flat,  as 
the  rainless  climate  permitted.  Those  of  the  temples  were 
constructed  of  slabs  of  stone  resting  directly  on  the  lintels, 
dispensing  with  all  wood.  The  compact  soil  rendered  deep 
foundations  unnecessary.  Piers  and  columns,  originally 
monolithic,  were  perforce,  in  the  largest  examples,  built  up 
like  towers  with  rough  filling,  often  none  too  solid.  The 
masonry  gradually  lost  the  precision  of  the  earliest  monu- 


24          A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

ments  in  the  vast  and  hasty  erections  of  the  later  Empire,  but 
the  constructive  methods  remained  nearly  constant. 

Decoration.  The  elements  of  decorative  expression  likewise 
remained  substantially  the  same  in  different  periods.  They 
were  based  on  natural  forms,  like  the  lotus  and  palm,  or  on 
conventional  geometric  lines,  such  as  the  spiral.  The  god's 
house,  conceived  as  the  world,  had  its  walls  painted  with  con- 
ventional landscapes,  its  ceiling  spangled  with  stars.  The 
legends  of  the  gods  and  the  exploits  of  the  kings  filled  every 
available  space,  proclaiming  in  no  modest  way  the  glories 
of  the  builders,  of  the  restorers,  and  of  usurping  monarchs  who 
wished  to  shine  by  reflected  light. 

The  architect.  During  the  whole  of  Egyptian  history  the 
architect  was  a  man  of  importance,  as  might  be  expected  when 
building  formed  so  large  a  part  of  the  monarch's  activity. 
Inscriptions  in  tombs  of  the  Fifth  Dynasty  show  that  in  two 
cases,  at  least,  the  functions  of  prime  minister,  chief  judge, 
and  royal  architect  were  combined.  The  mortuary  inscrip- 
tion of  the  prime  minister  of  Thothmes  III.,  in  recounting  his 
duties,  includes  personal  inspection  of  monuments  under  con- 
struction. Whoever  the  real  designers  were,  they  were  far 
from  being  mere  slaves  of  tradition,  and  some  of  them,  like 
Sen-Mut,  the  architect  of  Der-el-Bahri,  showed  themselves 
men  of  the  highest  genius. 

It  is  to  its  strength  and  dignity,  above  all,  that  Egyptian 
architecture  owes  its  effect.  Less  structural  than  sculptural 
in  many  of  its  forms,  it  nevertheless  has  breadth  and  monu- 
mental quality.  At  its  best  pure  and  subtle,  it  is  seldom  lack- 
ing in  magnificence  or  even  in  some  touch  of  sublimity,  which 
is  universally  recognized  in  its  major  creations. 

MESOPOTAMIA 

The  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  supported  a  civilization  per- 
haps even  more  ancient  than  that  of  Egypt.  It  is  impossible 
to  date  the  most  primitive  monuments  of  either  country  ac- 
curately enough  to  decide  priority  of  origins.  In  the  forma- 
tion of  a  developed  style  and  the  execution  of  monuments  of 
the  first  magnitude,  however,  the  peoples  of  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  valley  lagged  many  centuries  behind  the  Egyptians. 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  25 

Natural  conditions  and  modes  of  construction.  The  natural 
conditions  were  in  many  respects  less  favorable  than  in 
Egypt.  The  absence  of  any  good  native  building-stone  or 
abundance  of  wood  left  sun-dried  mud  brick  the  best  ma- 
terial available  in  large  quantities.  Torrential  rains  and 
frequent  floods  rendered  constructions  relatively  imperma- 
nent, even  though  the  walls  were  faced  with  burnt  brick  and 
the  buildings  were  raised  on  huge  platforms.  In  Babylonia 
in  early  times  stone  was  almost  impossible  to  secure.  Even 
in  Assyria  the  difficulty  of  bringing  it  from  the  mountains  was 
so  great  as  to  prevent  its  being  used  ordinarily  even  for  lintels. 
Wood,  itself  hard  to  obtain,  had  to  be  used  for  columns  and 
for  ceiling  beams,  to  support  the  thick  roofs  of  clay.  With 
the  materials  available,  the  only  device  which  could  have 
furnished  a  permanent  covering  of  voids  with  great  weight 
above  was  the  arch.  Its  principle  was  known  in  Mesopo- 
tamia from  the  earliest  times,  and  was  employed  frequently 
in  subterranean  vaults,  in  gateways  and  doors,  where  there 
was  no  lack  of  abutment.  Whether  spanned  by  wooden 
beams  or  by  barrel  vaults,  the  rooms  were  given  by  prefer- 
ence a  long,  rectangular  form.  Tradition  dictated,  as  in 
Egypt,  that  the  entrance  to  such  rooms  should  be  on  the 
longer  side;  in  other  words,  the  rooms  were  broad  and  shal- 
low, rather  than  narrow  and  deep.  Terraced  roofs  per- 
mitted the  rooms  to  be  massed  in  any  convenient  ar- 
rangement, without  complicating  the  disposal  of  rain- 
water. Thus,  as  in  Egypt,  great  aggregations  of  rooms 
and  courts,  rather  than  isolated  blocks,  were  the  rule.  The 
ornamentation  of  buildings,  like  the  construction,  had  to  be 
largely  of  clay. 

Prevailing  types.  As  with  most  early  peoples,  the  temples 
were  of  great  importance.  A  rather  gloomy  view  of  a  future 
life,  on  the  other  hand,  gave  no  encouragement  to  the  build- 
ing of  elaborate  tombs.  The  palaces  of  the  Assyrian  kings 
were  more  massive  in  construction  than  those  of  Egypt,  as 
befitted  the  greater  relative  importance  of  the  life  on  earth. 
Constant  exposure  to  invasion  gave  military  architecture  a 
development  for  which  there  was  no  occasion  in  Egypt. 

Development.  In  the  history  of  Mesopotamian  architecture 
four  principal  periods  of  activity  may  be  distinguished,  sue- 


26          A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

cessively  in  Chaldea,  in  the  "Old  Babylonian"  kingdom,  in 
Assyria,  and  in  reincarnated  Babylon. 

Origins.  The  earliest  Mesopotamian  culture  seems  to  have 
developed  near  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  in  Chaldea,  spreading 
over  the  lower  half  of  the  valley  to  embrace  what  later  be- 
came Babylonia.  The  struggle  between  the  primitive  city 
states  lasted  much  longer  in  this  region  than  in  Egypt,  and 
unification  was  postponed  till  a  full  millennium  after  Menes 
had  brought  about  the  union  of  the  Two  Lands  of  the  Nile. 
A  difference  of  language  in  the  cuneiform  script  has  lent  color 
to  ancient  tradition  of  a  native  Sumerian  population,  grad- 
ually giving  way  before  an  invading  Semitic  people  which 
borrowed  its  civilization  and  its  arts.  The  two  existed  side 
by  side  in  the  formative  period  and  possibly  may  be  but  two 
branches  of  a  single  stem. 

Chaldea.  Remains  at  the  Sumerian  center  of  Lagash,  the 
modern  Tello,  include  a  building  of  the  king  Ur-Nina — the 
oldest  structure  yet  found  in  Mesopotamia  which  can  be  dated 
— built  perhaps  3000  years  before  Christ.  There  is  also  a 
fragment  of  the  staged  tower  built  by  Gudea  about  2450  B.C. 
incorporated  in  a  later  palace.  The  early  Semitic  religious 
center  was  at  Nippur,  where  the  ruins  of  the  temple  precinct 
include  superposed  remains  of  several  staged  towers,  dating 
from  the  very  earliest  times.  The  general  similarity  of  these 
buildings  to  the  later  buildings  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  es- 
tablishes the  essential  continuity  of  Mesopotamian  archi- 
tecture. 

Old  Babylonian  Kingdom.  Although  as  early  as  2650  B.C. 
the  Semitic  kings  of  Agade  had  extended  their  rule  to  the 
Mediterranean,  the  internal  consolidation  of  Babylonia  itself 
was  not  accomplished  till  about  2100,  under  the  great  king 
Khammurabi  of  Babylon.  His  city,  hitherto  relatively  un- 
important, now  became  the  center  of  a  powerful  state,  the  so- 
called  Old  Babylonian  Kingdom.  Plans  of  dwelling-houses 
from  this  period  show  already  the  characteristic  Babylonian 
scheme  of  a  square  court  with  the  principal  room  along  its 
southern  side.  The  streets  and  blocks  then  established  re- 
mained unchanged  throughout  the  history  of  the  city.  The 
kingdom  flourished  till  about  1750  B.C.,  when  it  was  over- 
run by  Kassite  invaders. 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE 


Assyrian  supremacy.  The  leadership  next  fell  to  Assyria, 
the  northern  half  of  the  valley,  which  had  been  colonized  by 
the  Semites  of  the  south  about  2000,  and  which  now  began 
an  independent  career.  The  Asiatic  conquests  of  Thothmes 
III.  and  his  great  successors  in  the  fifteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  brought  both  Assyria  and  Babylon  in  contact  with 
Egypt,  to  which  their  kings  sent  gifts.  By  noo  Assyria  was 
strong  enough  to  eject  the  Kassites  from  the  south  and  for  a 


FIG.  / — DUR-SHARRUKIN   (KHORSABAD)  THE  PALACE  OF  SARGON. 
(RESTORED  BY  PLACE) 

brief  period  to  rule  over  a  united  country.  After  an  interrup- 
tion of  two  centuries  she  again  assumed  her  aggressive  policy, 
and  under  a  series  of  strong  kings  had  conquered  all  western 
Asia  by  700.  The  capital,  first  at  Ashur,  was  later  more  usu- 
ally at  Calah,  though  royal  residences  were  often  maintained 
in  both  places  and  in  Nineveh  as  well.  Sargon  II.,  who 
ruled  from  722  to  705,  founded  for  his  capital  a  new  city, 
Dur-Sharrukin,  the  modern  Khorsabad.  His  successor,  Sen- 
nacherib, raised  Nineveh  to  the  primacy,  which  it  retained  to 
the  downfall  of  the  Empire.  He  was  driven  to  destroy  re- 
bellious Babylon,  which,  however,  was  restored  by  his  son, 
Esarhaddon.  Under  Esarhaddon  even  Egypt  was  brought 


beneath  the  Assyrian  yoke  for  a  brief  period.  The  culmination 
followed  in  the  peaceful  days  of  Ashurbanipal  (668-626).  His 
palace  at  Nineveh,  inferior  only  to  that  of  Sennacherib,  was 


FIG.    8 — DUR-SHARRUKIN.      THE   PALACE  OF  SARGON.      PLAN.       (PLACE) 


adorned  with  bas-reliefs  of  remarkable  animation  and  natur- 
alness. 

Dur-Sharrukin.     The  best  preserved  of  all  Mesopotamian 
monuments,  the  one  which  gives  the  most  vivid  idea  of  Assy- 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  13 

rian  architecture  in  its  maturity,  is  the  palace  of  Sargon  at 
Dur-Sharrukin,  the  modern  Khorsabad  (Figs.  7  and  8).  The 
city,  of  which  it  was  an  integral  part,  formed  a  rectangle  a  little 
over  a  mile  on  each  side,  inclosed  by  a  wall  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  wide  and  sixty  feet  high,  with  battlements,  towers, 
and  outworks.  Like  most  Mesopotamian  structures,  it  had 
its  corners  toward  the  points  of  the  compass,  contrary  to  the 
practice  in  Egypt,  where  the  sides  faced  the  cardinal  points. 

The  palace  of  Sargon.  The  palace  itself,  on  a  huge  plat- 
form in  the  middle  of  the  northwest  wall,  covered  an  area 
of  twenty-five  acres.  The  platform  was  faced  with  massive 
blocks  of  limestone,  here  accessible,  and  limestone  was  also 
used  as  a  plinth  for  the  crude  brick  walls.  A  ramp  and  a 
monumental  staircase  led  up  from  the  city,  through  arched 
and  towered  gateways,  to  two  great  courts,  about  which  the 
main  divisions  of  the  palace  were  grouped.  The  state  apart- 
ments in  the  center,  and  the  khan,  or  service,  division  at  the 
eastern  corner,  can  be  identified  with  certainty.  The  walls 
were  very  thick,  one  story  high,  and  at  right  angles.  The 
rooms  were  relatively  small  and  dark,  opening  through  one 
another  to  minor  courts,  irregularly  placed.  Although  the 
plan  was  very  complex,  and  its  chief  quarters  were  kept 
separated,  it  lacked  any  highly  organized  system  of  com- 
munications and  any  extended  symmetry  or  expression  of  the 
internal  arrangements. 

The  temples.  On  the  same  platform  with  the  palace  stood 
a  second  block  of  buildings,  a  group  of  temples,  in  close  asso- 
ciation with  the  ziggurat,  or  lofty  staged  tower,  "the  link  of 
heaven  and  earth,"  which  was  the  most  striking  feature  of 
Mesopotamian  religious  groups.  In  the  temple  block  are  three 
distinct  suites,  dedicated  evidently  to  different  divinities, 
each  suite  consisting  essentially  of  a  square  court,  a  broad 
vestibule,  and  a  long  hall  with  a  cell  at  the  end,  apparently 
the  sanctuary  proper.  In  these  suites  trie  household  of  the  god 
was  established,  here  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  here  the 
most  valuable  votive  offerings  of  the  kings  were  deposited. 

The  ziggurat.  The  special  residence  of  the  god  himself  and 
his  consort  was  the  chamber  which  crowned  the  ziggurat, 
"the  house  of  the  mountain."  At  Dur-Sharrukin  the  tower 
which  supported  this  was  formed  of  a  single  continuous  ramp, 


30         A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

square  in  plan,  rising  like  a  screw  with  seven  turns.  The 
walls  were  enameled  successively  white,  black,  purple,  blue, 
vermilion,  silver,  and  gold,  symbolizing  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  mass  was  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  square  at  the  base 
and  rose  twenty  feet  at  each  turn.  Some  Assyrian  ziggurats 
seem  to  have  had  three  or  five  stages;  sometimes  each  of 
these  was  a  level  terrace  connected  with  the  others  by  stairs. 
The  plans  were  now  square,  now  rectangular. 

New  Babylonian  Kingdom.  Within  twenty  years  of  the 
death  of  Ashurbanipal  his  empire  had  succumbed  to  the 
Medes.  Babylon,  which  had  assisted  them,  was  left  in- 
dependent and  entered  on  a  splendid  renaissance.  In  the 
reign  of  her  great  king,  Nebuchadnezzar,  especially,  from 
604  to  561,  were  built  the  magnificent  walls,  the  temples,  the 
palaces,  the  so-called  "Hanging  Gardens"  which  excited  the 
admiration  of  Herodotus  and  other  travelers,  and  the  great 
ziggurat.  The  wealth  of  the  Babylonian  kings  enabled  them 
to  burn  brick  and  to  bring  stone  from  a  distance,  yet  the 
fundamental  constructive  system  remained  unchanged.  The 
palace  plans  show  a  somewhat  more  regular  disposition  than 
those  of  Assyria,  with  recurring  suites  of  similar  form  for  the 
living-apartments  and  access  facilitated  by  corridors.  The 
temples,  which  are  square  or  nearly  square  in  plan,  have  a 
central  court,  with  the  sanctuary  and  its  vestibule  lying 
usually  along  the  southern  side  (Fig.  9),  much  as  in  the  plan 
of  the  Babylonian  dwelling.  The  ziggurat  of  Babylon,  like 
the  one  at  Nippur,  stands  in  a  vast  walled  inclosure,  pre- 
ceded by  minor  courts.  In  the  palace  of  the  citadel  is  a 
massive  substructure  with  two  series  of  parallel  rooms,  which 
retain  unmistakable  traces  of  having  been  vaulted  in  brick. 
The  excavators  have  sought  to  recognize  in  this  unfamiliar 
arrangement  the  foundation  of  the  Hanging  Gardens,  which 
would  accordingly  have  obtained  their  sobriquet  through 
astonishment  at  a  method  of  support  so  novel  to  its  observers. 
The  revival  of  Babylonian  glory  was  brief.  In  538  the  city 
fell  before  the  all-conquering  Persian,  Cyrus,  and  the  su- 
premacy of  its  native  art  came  to  a  close. 

Roofs  and  vaulting.  Throughout  ancient  times,  as  now,  the 
normal  method  of  roofing  in  Mesopotamia  was  by  wooden 
beams  supporting  a  mat  of  reeds,  and  then  a  thick  bed  of 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE 


clay  graded  with  a  slight  inclination  to  permit  water  to  run 
off.  Inscriptions  tell  of  the  bringing  of  beams  of  cedar,  pine, 
and  oak  from  Amanus  and  Lebanon  to  form  the  ceilings  of 
temples  and  palaces.  The  earliest  investigators  made  the 
unwarranted  as- 
sumption that 
barrel  vaults  were 
employed  in  most 
of  the  rooms  of  the 
Assyrian  palaces, 
an  inference  from 
their  generally 
elongated  shape 
and  thick  walls,  and 
from  the  absence  of 
any  vestige  of  ceil- 
ing  beams.  A 
famous  bas  -  relief 
at  Nineveh,  further- 
more, shows  houses 
covered  externally 
with  egg-shaped 
domes,  similar  to 
those  of  the  Sassa- 
nian  buildings  of 
Persia  many  cen- 
turies later.  Re- 
mains of  at  least 
one  such  dome  have 
been  found  which  is 
thought  to  date 
from  Sumerian 
times.  It  is  now 
generally  admitted, 

however,  that  even  single  vaulted  rooms  in  Mesopotamian 
buildings  were  exceptional,  and  that  the  group  of  free-standing 
vaults  in  the  palace  at  Babylon  is,  as  far  as  we  know,  unique 
in  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  vaulted  drains  below- 
ground  abound  in  both  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  times. 
These,  which  are  sometimes  semicircular,  sometimes  pointed 


FIG.  9 — BABYLON.     PLAN  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF 
NINMAH.     (AFTER  KOLDEWEY) 


32  A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

in  section,  are  remarkable  in  being  built  in  successive  rings, 
which  are  not  vertical,  but  inclined.  By  means  of  this  in- 
clination the  builders  were  enabled  to  carry  their  vault  along 
over  the  void,  without  any  necessity  for  wooden  false-work  or 
centering.  Each  course  adhered  to  the  preceding  one  and 
was  supported  by  it.  It  was  merely  necessary  to  have  a  wall 
or  arch  to  start  against. 

Columns.  Columns  were  used  but  sparingly,  as  supports 
for  light,  isolated  structures,  and  in  porticos  along  the  sides  of 
a  court.  They  were,  for  the  most  part,  apparently,  of  wood, 
painted  or  covered  with  metal  plates.  Some  fragments  of 
stone  columns  have  been  found  in  Assyria  with  carved  capitals 
and  bases,  usually  of  cushion  form.  A  relief  from  Nineveh 
shows  a  small  columned  shrine  having  capitals  with  two  pairs 
of  scrolls  or  volutes,  one  above  another.  These  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  later  Ionic  capital  of  the  Greeks,  and 
doubtless  exercised  an  influence  on  it. 

Ornament.  Winged  bulls  of  stone  carved  in  high  relief 
were  used  to  decorate  the  jambs  of  arched  gateways  and  .the 
bases  of  towers.  Friezes  in  low  relief  representing  historical 
subjects  or  hunting  scenes  ornamented  the  state  apartments 
of  the  palaces.  Brick  enameled  in  colors  was  also  a  favorite 
mode  of  surface  decoration.  At  Dur-Sharrukin  broad  bands 
were  placed  around  the  arches;  at  Babylon  a  frieze  of  stalk- 
ing lions  followed  the  processional  street  and  representations 
of  columns  lined  the  walls  of  the  palace. 

The  assumption  of  all  credit  for  Mesopotamian  buildings 
by  the  monarch  has  kept  in  obscurity  the  men  who  built 
them.  Their  work  is  indeed  less  individual  than  official  in 
character.  By  the  very  repetition  of  the  great  rectangular 
masses  with  their  endless  towers  and  battlements  it  gives  a 
powerful  expression  of  the  size  and  grandeur  of  the  Oriental 
monarchies. 

PERSIA 

The  architecture  of  the  Persians,  who  next  succeeded  to 
the  domination  of  western  Asia  under  Cyrus  and  other 
Achaemenian  kings,  borrowed  certain  forms  from  the  con- 
quered regions — Mesopotamia,  Ionia,  and  Egypt.  Never- 
theless, it  retained  a  large  native  element,  suggestive  of  a. 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  33 

primitive  columnar  architecture  of  wood.  Similar  reminis- 
cences of  wooden  construction  can  be  traced  in  Ionia  and  es- 
pecially in  Lycia,  but  it  seems  less  probable  that  the  Persian 
forms  were  merely  imitative  of  these  than  that  all  were 
descended  from  a  more  or  less  common  type,  the  product  of 
similar  conditions.  Wood  and  stone  were  both  obtainable 
on  the  plateau  of  Iran,  as  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor;  wood 
was  naturally  used  in  early  days,  stone  after  the  growth  of 
wealth  and  power.  In  Persia  the  entablatures  and  roof 
framing  remained  of  wood  throughout  the  Achaemenian  period, 
making  possible  the  unusual  slenderness  and  the  wide  spacing 
of  the  columns.  As  in  Assyria  and  early  Greece,  the  roof  it- 
self was  a  thick  mass  of  clay,  terraced,  with  a  very  slight  in- 
clination. Though  the  Persians  drew  some  decorative  forms 
from  other  countries,  their  chief  source  for  them  was  Assyria. 
The  winged  bulls  and  bas-reliefs  are  but  clumsily  imitated; 
and  even  the  polychrome  friezes  of  enameled  brick  from  Susa, 
the  masterpieces  of  Persian  art,  are  relatively  crude  beside 
their  prototypes  at  Babylon. 

Development.  .  The  development  of  Achaemenian  art  follows 
the  dramatic  history  of  the  dynasty.  It  appeared  suddenly 
with  Cyrus  about  550  B.C.,  absorbing  Mesopotamaan  and 
Ionian  elements  as  he  conquered  those  countries,  and  Egyptian 
motives  after  the  conquests  of  Cambyses.  It  disappeared  as 
suddenly  before  Greek  civilization  on  the  collapse  of  the  vast 
empire  in  its  struggle  with  Alexander. 

Types  of  buildings.  Zoroastrianism,  the  ancient  religion  of 
Persia,  had  no  images  and  required  neither  true  temples  nor 
sepulchers.  The  Achaemenian  kings,  however,  did  not  ob- 
serve the  custom  of  exposing  their  bodies  after  death,  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  Avesta,  and  their  monumental  tombs  are 
among  the  chief  remains  of  Persian  architecture.  Still  more 
important  are  the  palaces,  which  reflect  the  proud  absolutism 
of  the  Great  King. 

Palaces.  The  Persian  palaces  at  Pasargadae  and  Persepolis 
stood  on  great  platforms  like  those  of  Assyria.  Here  these 
were  built  of  stone  and  served  at  once  to  give  military  security 
and  monumental  setting  (Fig.  10).  At  Persepolis  a  vast  double 
staircase  leads  up  from  the  plain,  giving  access  to  the  platform 
through  a  tall  columnar  porch  flanked  with  winged  bulls. 


/ 


f° 

-" -nr-  I 


35 

On  low  platforms  resting  on  the  larger  one  stand  three  palaces, 
those  of  Darius,  Xerxes,  and  Artaxerxes  III.  They  are  similar 
in  general  arrangement,  with  a  large,  square,  columned  hall, 
preceded  by  a  deep  portico  and  surrounded  by  minor  rooms. 
Audience-halls.  Independent  of  the  palaces  are  the  mag- 
nificent audience-halls  of  Darius  and  of  Xerxes,  each  cover- 


Copyright,  by  Macmillan  £  Co. 
FIG.    II — PERSEPOLIS.      TOMB   OF   DARIUS,  NAKSH-I-RUSTAM.      (JACKSON) 

ing  more  than  an  acre.  In  disposition  they  reproduce  the 
central  feature  of  the  palaces,  but  on  a  greater  scale.  The 
hall  of  Darius  has  ten  columns  each  way,  inclosed  by  massive 


36          A 

walls.  A  portico  eight  columns  wide  and  two  deep  is  flanked 
by  colossal  winged  bulls.  The  hall  of  Xerxes  has  but  six 
columns  each  way  in  the  central  portion,  but  has  porticos 
the  full  width  of  this  on  three  sides.  With  its  columns  thirty 
feet  apart  and  almost  seventy  feet  high,  this  building  takes 
rank  with  the  greatest  columnar  buildings  of  Egypt  and  of 
Greece. 

Tombs.  The  earliest  royal  tomb,  supposed  to  be  that  of 
Cyrus — a  small  gable-roofed  cella  mounted  on  seven  great 
steps — is  obviously  imitative  of  Ionian  architecture.  Those 
of  later  monarchs  seem  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  rock-cut 
tombs  of  Egypt.  They  are  found  in  the  cliff  at  the  back  of 
the  palace  platform  at  Persepolis,  and  near  by  in  the  rock  now 
known  as  Naksh-i-Rustam  (Fig.  n).  All  are  substantially 
similar,  with  a  portico  of  four  engaged  columns  carved  about 
the  door,  a  great  bas-relief  above,  and  a  blank  space  of  equal 
size  below.  Their  chief  interest  lies  in  their  representation  of 
the  Persian  entablature  of  wood.  With  its  architrave  of  three 
superposed  bands,  its  projecting  beam-ends  above,  this  is 
clearly  related  in  its  origin  to  the  forms  of  the  Ionic  entablature 
in  Greece. 

Religious  buildings.  Though  the  ancient  Persians  had  no 
true  temples,  their  sacred  fire  needed  a  small  inclosed  shrine 
where  it  could  be  kept  continually  burning,  and  altars  in  the 
open  air  where  it  could  be  occasionally  kindled  for  sacrifice. 
These  may  be  recognized,  perhaps,  in  the  small  square  towers 
with  blank  windows,  still  preserved  near  Pasargadae  and 
Persepolis,  and  in  the  altars  of  uncertain  date  at  the  rock  of 
Naksh-i-Rustam  and  elsewhere. 

Columns.  The  Persian  columns  were  slender,  and  crowned 
with  a  peculiar  capital  in  which  the  heads  and  forequarters 
of  two  bulls  are  united  back  to  back  in  the  direction  of  the 
architrave.  Beneath  these  in  some  examples  were  placed 
multiplied  pairs  of  volutes  on  end,  and  then  bells,  upright 
and  inverted,  in  incoherent  sequence.  Thus  the  capital 
became  long  out  of  all  usual  proportion  to  the  shaft  below. 

In  its  problems  of  the  column  and  lintel  Persian  architecture 
was  related  to  the  classic  architecture  of  Greece,  which  was 
roughly  contemporary  with  it,  and  which  carried  its  solutions 
much  further  in  technical  facility  and  refinement. 


37 

THE    AEGEAN 

The  direct  forerunners  of  the  classic  races  of  Greece,  in 
civilization  and  in  architecture,  were  the  early  inhabitants  of 
the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  ^Egean,  whom  the  later  tribes 
with  their  iron  swords  deprived  of  their  birthright.  Con- 
trary to  earlier  belief,  it  now  seems  clear  that  civilization 
developed  almost  simultaneously  all  about  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean, and  remains  have  been  found  in  Crete  and  Asia  Minor 
contemporary  with  the  earliest  monuments  of  Egypt,  though 
less  advanced  in  artistic  character. 

Development.  Two  principal  periods  may  be  recognized 
which  show  considerable  differences  in  their  types  of  archi- 
tecture. The  earlier,  during  which  Crete,  in  close  touch 
with  Egypt  and  Syria,  was  the  leader,  has  been  called  the 
Minoan  period,  from  the  legendary  sea  king,  Minos.  The 
later  period,  the  so-called  Mycenaean,  was  that  in  which  the 
inhabitants  of  the  mainland  cities,  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  Argos, 
and  others — probably  the  Achaeans  of  the  Homeric  poems — 
continued  the  culture  of  Crete  after  overthrowing  its  political 
supremacy.  The  long  development  of  Minoan  art,  following 
the  introduction  of  bronze  about  3000  B.C.,  was  cut  off  with 
the  destruction  of  Knossos  about  1400.  Costumes  sewed  and 
fitted,  plumbing  scarcely  rivaled  again  till  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  are  evidences  of  a  surprisingly  luxurious 
civilization.  Its  continuation  on  the  mainland,  somewhat 
less  refined  in  life  and  art,  lasted  till  the  dark  ages  following 
the  Dorian  invasion,  about  noo. 

Types.  In  the  patriarchal  monarchies  of  the  time  the 
palaces  were  naturally  the  chief  buildings.  In  Crete,  where 
dominion  rested  on  sea  power,  these  were  quite  unfortified; 
at  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and  Troy  they  were  walled* strongly  and 
ingeniously  against  land  attacks.  Religious  ceremonies  do 
not  seem  to  have  required  any  highly  specialized  construc- 
tions. Interment  was  the  ordinary  funeral  custom,  but 
certain  tombs  excavated  in  the  hillsides  were  given  a  monu- 
mental character.  Building  materials  and  climate  placed 
little  restriction  on  the  choice  of  forms ;  the  column  and  lintel 
and  the  corbeled  arch  were  employed  exclusively. 

Oriental  and  European  elements.     Besides  many  peculiar  na- 


38          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

tive  elements,  among  which  the  entrance-portico  opening  on 
two  adjacent  sides  is  one  of  the  most  striking,  Cretan 
architecture  shows  a  number  of  features  of  Oriental  character. 


FIG.  12 — KNOSSOS.   PLAN  OF  A  PART  OF  THE  PALACE.   (EVANS) 

These  include  the  flat  roof,  with  the  complex  juxtaposition  of 
rooms  which  it  permits,  and  the  court  surrounded  by  a  con- 


39 

tinuous  peristyle.  The  architectural  dispositions  of  the  main- 
land, on  the  other  hand,  show  signs  of  a  European  origin; 
they  can  be  traced  without  a  break  from  the  primitive  hut  com- 
mon to  northern  races.  The  isolated  position  of  the  prin- 
cipal rooms,  with  entrances  only  on  one  end,  suggests  that 
they  were  covered  with  gable  roofs.  The  court,  instead  of 
forming  a  homogeneous  ensemble,  was  a  resultant  of  the 
surrounding  units,  with  walls  or  porticos  independent  of  one 
another.  Although  the  dispositions  in  the  two  regions  thus 
differ  markedly,  the  decorative  forms  are  largely  the  same, 
borrowed  by  the  mainland,  with  the  minor  arts,  from  Crete. 

Crete.  The  palace  at  Knossos,  the  greatest  of  the  Cretan 
centers  (a  portion  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  12),  is  in  very 
truth  a  "labyrinth"  which  might  well  have  given  rise  to  the 
classic  legend.  About  a  long  rectangular  paved  court  are 
grouped  rooms  and  tortuous  passages  in  the  greatest  con- 
fusion. On  the  eastern  side  they  were  superposed  in  two 
stories,  at  least,  the  lower  ones  taking  what  light  they  have 
from  narrow  light -wells.  The  functions  of  many  of  the  parts 
are  still  uncertain,  but  they  seem  never  to  have  been  logically 
grouped.  The  more  important  rooms  were  preceded  by  the 
characteristic  corner-wise  porticos  already  mentioned.  The 
great  staircase  running  through  three  stories,  with  its  ramping 
colonnade,  is  a  notable  feature.  Another  is  the  "theatral 
area,"  a  paved  space  with  banks  of  steps  on  two  adjoining 
sides,  evidently  intended  for  spectators.  One  of  these  is  also 
found  at  the  similar  palace  of  Phaistos,  which  has  its  own 
features  of  special  interest,  among  them  the  monumental 
flight  of  sixteen  broad  steps  before  the  main  entrance.  At 
Gournia  a  whole  city  was  unearthed,  with  simple  houses  of 
stone  and  baked  brick,  narrow,  winding  streets,  and  a  small 
central  palace  and  altar. 

The  mainland.  The  citadel-palaces  at  Mycenae,  Tiryns 
(Fig.  13),  and  other  cities  of  later  importance  are  irregular  in 
plan,  like  the  fortified  summits  which  they  crown,  but  they 
show  certain  recurring  elements  of  similar  form.  Chief  of 
these  was  the  megaron,  or  men's  hall,  a  square  room  with  a 
hearth  in  the  center  and  a  vestibule  and  colonnaded  portico 
in  front,  opening  on  the  main  court.  Access  to  this  court,  as 
to  the  forecourt  which  might  precede  it,  was  obtained  through 

3 


40          A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

monumental  gateways  or  propylaea.  Each  of  these  had  a  door 
which  was  protected,  inside  and  out,  by  small  porticos  between 
flanking  walls,  or  antae. 

Walls,  openings,  and  vaults.     The  walls  were  sometimes  of 
the  finest  cut  stone,  sometimes  of  sun-dried  brick.     Stone  was 


FIG.    13 — TIRYNS.      PLAN   OF   THE   ACROPOLIS.       (RODENWALDf) 


used  for  fortress  and  retaining-walls,  and  for  the  base,  at  least, 
of  the  walls  of  dwellings.  In  the  palace  at  Tiryns  sun-dried 
brick  bonded  with  wooden  beams  seems  to  have  been  used 
for  the  superstructure.  The  fortress  walls  were  sometimes 
built  of  irregular  blocks,  the  huge  size  of  which  gained  them  the 
name  of  Cyclopean.  Sometimes  they  were  of  dressed  stone,  with 
either  polygonal  or  rectangular  blocks,  as  the  natural  cleavage 
of  the  stone  suggested.  Though  they  often  used  them,  the 
Mycenaean  builders  were  evidently  doubtful  of  the  strength 
of  large  stone  lintels,  and,  not  knowing  the  true  arch,  they 
were  led  to  give  an  unparalleled  development  to  the  corbeled 
arch  and  vault,  built  of  flat  stones  projecting  over  one  another 
till  they  finally  met.  The  lintel  of  the  "Gate  of  Lions"  at 
Mycenae,  for  instance,  is  relieved  of  any  considerable  weight  by 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  41 

a  corbeled  arch  (Fig.  14).  Corbeled  vaults  were  used  over  the 
narrow  galleries  in  the  walls  of  Tiryns  and  they  were  the 
favorite  means  of  covering  the  chambers  of  important  tombs. 
At  Isopata  in  Crete  the  chambers  are  rectangular,  and  the 


FIG.    14 — MYCENAE.      GATE   OF   LIONS 

two  long  sides  curve  together  above  to  form  the  vault.  The 
superior  strength  of  a  circular  form  was  realized,  and  in  some 
of  the  later  tombs  of  Mycenae  and  Orchomenos  there  are 
"beehive"  vaults  nearly  fifty  feet  in  diameter. 

Column  and  lintel.  The  columns  and  architraves,  both  in 
Crete  and  elsewhere,  were  of  wood,  and  have  for  the  most 
part  disappeared.  The  columns  of  the  "Treasury  of  Atreus" 
show  that  stone  was  sometimes  employed  as  well  as  wood; 
and  that,  in  addition  to  cylindrical  columns  and  columns  of 
the  usual  type,  larger  at  the  base  than  at  the  top,  there  were 


42          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

also  columns  larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  base.  These 
contradict  the  structural  tendency,  yet  the  enlargement  is  so 
slight  that  they  do  not  lack  grace  and  piquancy.  The  stone 
capitals  preserved  have  a  square  abacus  supported  by  a 
circular  cushion  or  torus,  sometimes  with  a  quarter-hollow 
beneath.  The  stone  entablatures  are  evidently  imitative  of 
wooden  construction,  for  the  ends  of  round  beams  are  repre- 
sented above  the  architrave.  With  mud-brick  walls,  wood 
was  apparently  used  for  facing  the  openings,  as  well  as  the 
ends  of  walls,  or  antae. 

Decoration.  The  fundamental  elements  of  decoration  were 
the  spiral,  the  chevron,  and  the  rosette,  employed  in  bands 
or  friezes.  Another  characteristic  type  of  frieze  was  one 
consisting  of  pairs  of  palmetto  ornaments  back  to  back  with 
a  rectangular  space  between.  In  the  triangular  space  above 
the  lintel  of  the  "Gate  of  Lions"  was  a  sculptured  relief  repre- 
senting a  column,  or  altar,  flanked  by  two  lions  (Fig.  14). 
Similar  reliefs  are  thought  to  have  occupied  the  corresponding 
spaces  in  other  gateways  and  doorways,  such  as  that  of  the 
"  Treasury  of  Atreus  "  (Fig.  15). 

Relation  to  Doric  architecture.  Many  of  the  Mycenasan 
forms  recur  in  the  architecture  of  historic  Greece,  especially 
in  the  buildings  of  the  Doric  style,  which  was  developed  by  the 
conquerors  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  plan  of  the  propylaea 
is  the  same;  the  plan  of  the  temple  preserves  the  form  of  the 
Mycenaean  megaron,  with  its  arrangement  of  columns  in  antis. 
The  Doric  capital,  the  antae,  the  high  wall  base  of  upright 
stones,  all  show  reminiscences  of  the  earlier  forms  which  in- 
dicate close  imitation,  if  not  actual  continuity.  As  in  so 
many  instances,  the  arts  of  the  conquered  took  captive  the 
conquerors,  though  new  vigor  and  new  needs  modified  exist- 
ing types  and  produced  new  ones.  The  prehistoric  architect- 
ure of  the  ^Egean  is  not,  however,  to  be  considered  merely  as 
a  barbarous  stage  in  the  development  of  Greek  classic  archi- 
tecture. It  was  itself  complete,  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
contemporary  civilization,  with  its  structural  and  decorative 
systems  thoroughly  established.  If  it  was  surpassed  in  ex- 
pressiveness and  organization  by  architecture  of  the  classic 
period,  it  was  not  the  less  superior  to  the  clumsy  experiments 
of  the  dark  ages  which  intervened. 


•  ' 


• 


• 


•  • 

.       : 


'         • 


•  :it 

, 

:'y 

:•   .,„ 


FIG.    15 — MYCEN^;.      PORTAL   OF   THE    "TREASURY   OF   ATREUS." 

(RESTORED  uv  SPIERS) 


44 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


The  preclassical  styles  which  had  their  seats  in  the  Levant 
and  western  Asia  developed  in  three  main  currents  largely 
native  and  independent  of  one  another.  In  their  continuous 
life  of  two  or  three  thousand  years  and  more,  it  is  a  few  brief 
periods  to  which  we  owe  the  vast  proportion  of  enduring 
monuments.  The  Fourth  and  Eighteenth  Dynasties  in 
Egypt,  the  Assyrian  culmination  and  the  Babylonian  renais- 
sance, the  palace-building  periods  of  Knossos  and  Mycenas, 
are  some  of  the  moments  for  which  long  centuries  of  political 
upheaval  and  artistic  groping  had  prepared.  In  the  first 
millennium  before  Christ  their  influence  focussed  on  Greece, 
where  was  evolved  a  style  destined  to  stamp  indelibly  the 
later  architecture  of  Europe. 


PERIODS  OF  EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURE 


Centers 


This 


Memphis 


Thebes 
Fayum 


I.  Prehistoric  period,  to  3400  B.C.1 

II.  Thinite  period,  3400-2980.     Dynasties  I. -I I. 

III.  Old  Kingdom,  about  2980-2475.    Dynasties 

III.-VI. 
The  pyramids — Khufu,   Khafre,   Men- 

kure. 

First  transitional  period — decline  of  the  king- 
dom.    Dynasties  VII. -X. 

IV.  Middle  Kingdom,  about  2160-1788.    Dynas- 

ties XI.-XII. 
Early  halls  at  Karnak.    Tombs  at  Beni 

Hasan.     Pyramids  at  Lisht. 
Second  transitional  period — Hyksos  invasion. 

V.  Empire, about  1 580-1090.  Dynasties  XVIII.- 

XX. 
Formative  period,  to  Thothmes  III.  and 

Hatshepsut  (1501-1447). 
Mortuary  temple  at  Der-el-Bahri. 
' '  Processional  Hall "  at  Karnak . 
Central     period,     culminating     under 

Amenhotep  III.  (1411-1375). 
Court  and  Hypostyle  Hall  at  Luxor. 
Temple  at  Elephantine. 

1  In  the  earlier  periods,  where  there   is   still   some  uncertainty,  the  dating  follows  the 
"  Berlin  "  system,  the  one  most  widely  accepted. 


Thebes 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE  45 

PERIODS   OF   EGYPTIAN    ARCHITECTURE— Continued 


VI. 


Revolution  under  Ikhnaton  (Amenhotep 

iv.)  (1375-1358).  J 

Restoration  under  Dynasty  XIX.    Seti 

I.,  Ramses  II.  (1313-1225). 
Great  Hall  at  Karnak.    Temple  at 

Abu-Simbel. 
Ramessid  period.    Dynasty  XX.  Ramses 

III.   (about  1198-1167). 
Mortuary  temple  at  Medinet-Habu. 

Third  transitional  period.  Decadence 
under  Libyan  and  Nubian  em- 
perors. Assyrian  conquest  and 
supremcy,  about  670-660. 


Centers 
\  El  Amarna 


Renaissance,  about  663-525.  Dynasty  XXVI. 
Psamthik.  Fourth  transitional  period. 
Persian  conquest. 

VII.    Graeco-Roman  period,  after  332  B.C. 
Ptolemaic  period,  to  30  B.C. 

Temples  at  Denderah,  Edfou,  and 

Phite. 

Roman  imperial  domination,  to  395  A.D. 
Later  buildings  at  Philae. 


Thebes 


Sais 


Alexandria 


PERIODS  OF   MESOPOTAMIAN  AND   PERSIAN 
ARCHITECTURE 


I.  Prehistoric  period,  to  about  3000  B.C. 

II.  Primitive  period — development  and 

struggle  of  city  states  in  Baby- 
lonia, about  3000-1900. 
Palace  of  Gudea  at  Lagash, 

about  2450. 
Ziggurats  at  Nippur. 

HI.     Old  Babylonian  Kingdom,  about  2100-1750. 

Khammurabi. 

Main  lines  of  Mesopotamian  architect- 
ure established. 

Kassite    domination    in    Babylonia,    about 
1750-1100, 


Lagash  (Tello) 


Sumerian:    Lagash 
Semitic:  Agade,  Nippur 


Babylon 


A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


PERIODS   OF    MESOPOTAMIAN   AND   PERSIAN 
ARCHITECTURE— Continued 


IV.  Rise  of  Assyria,  about  1650-1100,  culminat- 

ing in  first  conquest  of  Babylonia. 
Assyria  overrun  by  Aramean  nomads,  about 
1050-900. 

V.  Assyrian  Empire,  about  885-607. 

Conquest  of  western  Asia  completed  by 

700. 
Palace    of    Sargon    at    Dur-Sharrukin, 

722-705. 

Destruction  and  rebuilding  of  Babylon. 
Conquest  of  Lower  Egypt.  Sennacherib, 

Esarhaddon. 
Palaces  at  Nineveh. 
Culmination  under  Ashurbanipal,  668- 

626. 

Palaces  at  Nineveh. 

Destruction  of  Nineveh  by  Medes  and 
Babylonians,  about  607. 

VI.  New  Babylonian  Kingdom,  about  607-538. 

Nebuchadnezzar  II. 

Conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  King  of  Per- 
sia, 538. 

VII.  Persian  Empire,  about  550-330.      Achaeme- 

nian  Dynasty. 

Period  of  Ionian  and  Mesopotamian  in- 
fluence.    Cyrus. 
Tomb  of  Cyrus  at  Pasargadae. 
Period  of  Mesopotamian  and  Egyptian 

influence.    Darius,  Xerxes. 
Palaces  and  tombs  at  Persepolis. 
Conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander. 


Centers 
Ashur 


Nineveh 


Babylon 


Persepolis 


PERIODS  OF  AEGEAN  ARCHITECTURE 

I.  Prehistoric   period,   Stone  Age,   to  about 

3000  B.C. 

II.  Early  Minoan,  about  3000-2200.  Beginnings 

of  Bronze.  .  Crete 

Second  or  burnt  city  on  site  of  Troy. 


PRECLASSICAL  ARCHITECTURE 


47 


PERIODS   OF   ^GEAN    ARCHITECTURE— Continued 


III. 


Middle  Minoan  I.,  about  2200-2000. 

Earlier  palaces  at  Knossos  and  Phaistos. 
Middle  Minoan  II.,  about  2000-1850. 

First  culmination,  ending  with  first  de- 
struction of  Knossos. 
Middle  Minoan  III.,  about  1850-1600. 

Later  palace  at  Knossos  built. 
Late  Minoan  I.  and  II.,  about  1600-1400. 
Later  palace  at  Phaistos  built,  palace  at 
Knossos    remodeled.     Rise   of 
Mycenae,    Tiryns,    and    other 
mainland  cities.    Fall  of  Knos- 
sos, about  1400. 

Mycenaean  period,  about  1400-1100. 

Megaron-palaces  at  Mycenae,  Tiryns, 
Troy  (sixth,  or  Homeric,  city), 
etc. 

Dorian  invasion  of  Peloponnesus.     Ionian 
settlement  of  Asia  Minor.    Transi- 
tion to  iron. 


Centers 


Crete 


Greek 
mainland 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

Of  G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez's  monumental  Histoire  de  I'art  dans 
I'antiquite,  the  first  six  volumes,  1882-1894,  deal  with  preclassical 
architecture  (English  translation  by  W.  Armstrong,  1883-1894). 
Though  superseded  in  many  particulars,  these  volumes  are  still 
valuable,  especially  for  their*  graphic  restorations  in  perspective. 
The  history  of  excavations  is  summarized  in  H.  V.  Hilprecht's 
Excavations  in  Bible  Lands,  1903,  which  covers  Egypt  as  well  as 
Mesopotamia  and  Palestine.  A  special  study  of  the  columnar 
building,  based  on  the  latest  researches,  is  G.  Leroux's  Les  origines 
del'ediftce  hypostyle  en  Grece,  en  Orient  et  chez  les  Romains,  1913. 

Egypt.  The  only  general  work  in  English  wholly  devoted  to 
Egyptian  architecture  is  E.  Bell's  The  Architecture  of  Ancient  Egypt: 
a  historical  outline"  1915.  Another  authoritative  account  ap- 
pears in  G.  Maspero's  Art  in  Egypt,  1912,  arranged  chronologically, 
and  including  concise  bibliographies  of  the  individual  periods  and 
monuments.  The  same  author's  Manual  of  Egyptian  Archccology, 
translated  by  A.  B.  Edwards,  6th  ed.,  1913,  treats  architecture 
systematically,  by  types  of  monuments.  J.  Capart's  L'art  egyptien, 


48          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

2  vols.,  1909-1911,  is  an  excellent  collection  of  illustrations,  accom- 
panied by  bibliographical  references.  For  the  monuments  in  their 
historical  setting  see  J.  H.  Breasted's  A  History  of  Egypt,  26.  ed., 
1909;  for  a  topographical  treatment  see  the  guides  of  Baedeker, 
1914,  or  Cook,  1911,  as  well  as  A.  E.  P.  Weigail's  A  Guide  to  the 
Antiquities  of  Upper  Egypt,  1910.  A  special  study  of  constructive 
methods  is  A.  Choisy's  L'art  de  bdtir  chez  les  egyptiens,  1904. 

Mesopotamia.  The  most  recent  general  treatment  is  in  P.  S.  P. 
Handcock's  Mesopotamian  Archeology,  1912,  which  also  gives  a  brief 
history  of  the  excavations.  An  earlier  handbook,  including  also 
neighboring  countries,  is  E.  Babelon's  Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities, 
translated  by  B.  T.  A.  Evetts,  new  ed.,  1906.  The  section  of  Hil- 
precht's  work  already  cited  which  deals  with  Mesopotamia,  espe- 
cially with  the  monuments  of1  Nippur,  has  been  reprinted  as  The 
Excavations  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  1904.  For  the  complementary 
work  at  Babylon  see  R.  Koldewey's  The  Excavations  at  Babylon,  1914, 
translated  by  A.  S.  Johns,  1915.  For  the  cultural  background  see 
M.  Jastrow's  The  Civilization  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  1915. 

Persia.-  Babelon's  Manual  is  supplanted  by  A.  V.  W.  Jackson's 
Persia  Past  and  Present,  1906. 

The  Mgean.  H.  R.  Hall's  sEgean  Archeology,  1915,  gives  a  com- 
prehensive view.  Among  the  many  special  studies  devoted  to 
Cretan  monuments,  R.  M.  Burrows'  The  Discoveries  in  Crete,  1907 
(reprinted  with  addenda,  1908),  may  be  named  as  a  scholarly  sum- 
mary, to  its  date;  J.  Baikie's  The  Sea  Kings  of  Crete,  1910,  as  a  good 
popular  exposition.  C.  Tsountas  and  J.  I.  Manatt's  The  Mycencean 
Age,  2nd  ed.,  1916,  is  the  standard  work  on  its  period.  For  a  sum- 
mary of  the  excavations  aside  from  Crete  see  C.  Schuchhardt's 
Schliemann's  Excavations,  translated  by  E.  Sellers,  1891,  and  H.  C. 
Tolman  and  G.  C.  Scoggin's  Mycencean  Troy,  1903. 


CHAPTER  IV 
GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

The  Greek  architects  devoted  themselves  above  all  to  the 
problems  of  the  column  and  lintel,  creating  forms  which  no 
later  Western  people  has  ever  wholly  forgotten.  The  open- 
air  life  which  the  climate  invited,  the  simplicity  of  Greek 
ideals,  made  no  demands  for  the  covering  of  large  spaces 
which  the  lintel  could  not  meet,  and  the  arch  remained  con- 
fined to  minor  uses.  Respect  for  tradition  kept  the  essential 
form  of  certain  types  relatively  constant,  and  gave  oppor- 
tunity for  study  of  the  more  delicate  problems  of  expression. 
Two  separate  systems  of  columnar  forms,  the  Doric  and  the 
Ionic,  were  perfected  in  long  development  by  the  two  prin- 
cipal branches  of  the  Greek  race.  When  these  forms  came 
to  be  common  property,  their  details  were  not  mingled,  but 
kept  distinct,  as  recognized  "orders."  A  third  order,  the 
Corinthian,  was  a  relatively  late  artistic  creation. 

Natural  conditions  and  materials.  In  Greece  there  was 
less  external  compulsion  in  the  formation  of  the  architectural 
style  than  there  was  in  Egypt  or  Babylonia,  where  climatic 
conditions  were  extreme  and  the  choice  of  building  materials 
was  restricted.  Neither  drought  nor  floods  were  customary; 
wood  and  stone  were  both  available.  Natural  conditions 
still  made  themselves  felt,  of  course,  but  in  a  more  subtle 
way.  The  proportions  of  the  structural  members  were  in- 
fluenced by  the  strength  and  fineness  of  the  stone  available. 
In  the  West,  and  on  the  Greek  mainland  in  early  days,  it  was 
a  coarse,  porous  limestone.  In  Ionia  it  was  marble,  rela- 
tively fine-grained  and  strong.  At  Athens  marble  came  into 
general  use  in  the  fifth  century.  Even  in  early  days,  how- 
ever, the  materials  everywhere  left  a  wide  freedom  in  the 
choice  of  forms. 


50          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Personality  and  ideals  of  Greek  architects.  It  is  in  Greece 
that  the  personality  of  individual  architects  first  becomes  clear, 
in  spite  of  the  limitations  laid  on  them  by  tradition.  They 
knew  and  discussed  what  they  were  about,  as  the  titles  of  a 
long  series  of  technical  writings  attest.  Their  underlying 
theory  was  a  formal  one,  which  hoped  to  have  exhausted  the 
significance  of  beauty  in  the  phrase  "unity  in  variety."  The 
favorite  instance  of  beauty  was  musical  harmony  with  its 
physical  laws.  This  found  its  closest  analogy,  among  all  the 
arts,  in  architecture.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the 
quality  sought  among  all  others  was  symmetry,  in  a  broad 
sense.  The  Roman  writer,  Vitruvius,  who  drew  his  material 
from  Greek  sources,  defines  symmetry  as  "the  proper  agree- 
ment of  the  same  members  of  a  work,  and  the  proportional 
correspondence  of  the  several  parts  to  the  form  of  the  whole 
object."  The  Greeks  kept  units  for  different  purposes  dis- 
tinct, and  could  impress  on  each  a  homogeneous  form,  sym- 
metrical also  in  the  modern  restricted  sense  of  having  corre- 
sponding halves.  They  studied  proportions  to  secure  not 
only  a  general  harmony  in  the  relative  massiveness  or  slen- 
derness  of  all  the  parts,  but  also  a  mathematical  relation  be- 
tween their  dimensions — an  equality  of  ratios,  or  a  common 
dividing  module.  The  application  of  these  unifying  prin- 
ciples however,  was  not  mechanical.  Subtle  modifications 
were  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  still  higher  de- 
gree of  organization,  and  sometimes  for  the  sheer  avoidance 
of  too  monotonous  uniformity. 

Development.  The  development  of  the  architecture  of 
Greece  was  from  uncertainty  to  extreme  refinement,  and  then 
to  a  less  restrained  magnificence.  The  elements  of  the  early 
monuments  were  gradually  co-ordinated  and  harmonized, 
until  the  central  moment  was  reached  in  Periclean  Athens 
in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Then  ensued  a  diffusion  of  energy 
in  elaboration  and  variation  of  the  accepted  themes,  a  search 
for  novel  motives,  accompanied  by  the  solution  of  the  new 
problems  created  by  wealth  and  luxury. 

Periods.  The  chief  races  of  historic  Greece  first  appear 
about  noo  B.C.,  on  the  ruins  of  the  older  ^gean  civilization. 
The  archaic  or  formative  period  of  their  characteristic  styles 
began  roughly  with  the  beginning  of  the  Olympic  games,  in 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  51 

776,  the  first  expression  of  national  unity.  It  closed  with  the 
final  repulse  of  the  Persian  and  Carthaginian  attacks  in  480- 
479,  which  left  the  Greeks  conscious  of  their  powers  and 
stimulated  the  production  of  their  maturer  works  of  art. 
The  period  of  native  development  extended  roughly  till  the 
Macedonian  conquest  of  Greece  and  Asia,  338-323.  The 
splendid  expansion  known  as  Hellenistic  art,  in  which  the 
Greek  inheritance  was  modified  by  Asiatic  influences,  con- 
tinued until  the  Roman  conquest,  in  the  second  century  B.C., 
gave  a  new  direction  to  Greek  energies. 

Relation  of  Doric  and  Ionic  architecture.  Doric  architecture 
and  Ionic  were  at  first  distinct  styles,  and  their  subsequent 
intermingling  should  not  obscure  their  separate  origin  and 
different  fortunes.  At  the  opening  of  the  historic  period  the 
Dorians  occupied  the  Peloponnesus  and  central  Greece,  hav- 
ing repressed  certain  of  the  earlier  tribes  and  forced  others  to 
an  eastward  migration.  The  lonians  occupied  Attica,  the 
central  islands  of  the  ^Egean,  and  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
opposite,  called  specifically  Ionia;  the  ^olians  the  Asiatic 
coast  to  the  north.  It  was  in  Ionia  and  the  ^olian  towns, 
under  the  influence  of  Asiatic  models,  that  the  style  called 
Ionic  had  its  rise,  and  to  this  territory  and  the  neighboring 
islands  it  remained  almost  confined  until  late  in  the  fifth 
century.  All  the  rest  of  Hellas,  including  Attica,  meanwhile, 
was  engaged  in  developing  another  style,  called  by  contrast 
the  Doric,  which  had  its  roots  in  the  national  inheritance 
from  native  civilization.  The  Ionic  might  have  been  called 
provincial  had  not  Ionia  then  stood  in  the  lead  in  civilization, 
wealth,  and  art.  She  held  firmly  to  her  own  style,  so  that 
but  a  single  Doric  temple  is  to  be  found  on  Asiatic  soil.  It 
was  not  until  after  the  Athenian  naval  confederacy  brought 
the  two  shores  into  more  intimate  relations  that  Ionic  forms 
began  to  penetrate  continental  Greece  to  any  considerable 
extent  or  to  be  influenced  by  those  of  Doric  architecture. 

Archaic  period,  776-479.  The  leaders  in  artistic  productive- 
ness during  the  formative  period  in  Greece  were  the  Ionian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  newly  founded  colonies,  mostly 
Dorian,  of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily.  Their  lands  were  more 
fertile,  their  inhabitants  more  enterprising,  than  those  of 
Greece  itself,  so  that  they  early  attained  a  wealth  and  culture 


52          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

quite  beyond  the  general  simplicity  of  the  mainland  cities. 
Among  the  more  important  centers  in  Ionia  may  be  mentioned 
Ephesus  and  Samos,  with  their  gigantic  early  temples;  in 
the  west,  Selinus,  Akragas,  Syracuse,  Tarentum,  and  Paestum. 
On  the  mainland  Athens  alone,  under  the  wise  rule  of  Pisis- 
tratus,  gave  brief  promise  of  taking  rank  with  these.  Aside 
from  buildings  of  practical  utility  such  as  fortifications  and 
fountain  houses,  almost  the  only  public  monuments  were  the 
temples.  Singly,  or  impressively  grouped  on  the  acropolis 
or  in  a  sacred  inclosure,  they  dominated  the  modest  houses 
of  the  city.  In  harmony  with  the  materials  available,  the 
Ionic  forms  were  delicate,  slender,  and  graceful,  the  Doric 
generally  heavy — both  with  full  and  sweeping  curves  in  the 
capital.  The  adjustment  of  various  details  was  still  subject 
to  great  uncertainty,  especially  in  the  Doric  order,  with  its 
unconquered  difficulties  and  its  local  varieties  in  colonies 
under  Achaean  or  ^Eolian  influence.  Only  in  the  last  years 
of  the  sixth  century  was  a  final  solution  approached. 

Central  period:  fifth  century.  The  awakening  of  national 
consciousness  after  the  Persian  wars,  and  the  fifty  years  of 
comparative  peace  that  followed,  inaugurated  what  has 
usually  been  considered  the  great  period  of  Greek  art.  The 
rebuilding  of  the  ruined  monuments  of  northern  and  central 
Greece  stimulated  a  rapid  development  to  maturity  during 
the  fifth  century.  Ionia,  to  be  sure,  was  slow  in  recovering, 
and  built  little;  but  elsewhere  throughout  Hellas  there  was 
the  greatest  activity.  Though  the  western  colonies  retained 
their  prosperity,  the  mainland  now  rapidly  took  the  lead  in 
art  and  culture.  The  spoils  of  victory  contributed  to  the 
development  of  the  great  national  sanctuaries,  such  as  Delphi, 
Olympia,  and  Delos,  with  their  temples,  their  propylaea,  and 
their  treasuries  (Fig.  35).  The  evolution  of  the  drama  now 
first  added  the  theater  to  the  architectural  problems.  The 
forms  of  the  Doric  order  assumed  their  normal  relations, 
which  imposed  themselves  wherever  the  style  was  used. 

Athens  under  Pericles,  461-430.  At  Athens,  where  the 
destruction  had  been  most  complete  and  the  subsequent 
victory  most  fruitful,  a  happy  combination  of  circumstances 
produced  buildings  of  unique  refinement.  At  precisely  the 
moment  when  naval  supremacy  and  Asiatic  conquests  were 


FIG.    1 6 — ATHENS.      THE    PARTHENON,    FROM    THE    NORTHWEST 


FIG.    17 — ATHENS.      THE    PARTHENON.       (RESTORED    TO    ITS    CONDITION   IN 
ROMAN    TIMES.      MODEL    IN    METROPOLITAN    MUSEUM) 


54 


A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 


placing  Athens  in  close  touch  with  the  rich  art  of  her  Ionian 
kinsmen,  all  of  her  sanctuaries  were  to  be  rebuilt.  The 
marble  of  Mount  Pentelicus,  now  first  appreciated,  furnished 
a  worthy  medium,  permitting  more  slender  forms.  Ionic 
fervor  infused  the  stately  forms  of  Doric  architecture  with  a 
new  spirit  of  grace.  The  Ionic  forms  themselves  were  even 
employed,  although  radically  modified  by  Doric  traditions. 
The  full  advantage  of  the  moment  would  not  have  been  seized 


FIG.  1 8 — ATHENS.   THE  ERECHTHEUM,  FROM  THE  WEST 


had  not  the  Athenian  democracy  been  dominated  by  a  man 
of  the  insight  of  Pericles.  His  diversion  of  the  Delian  treasure 
to  the  adornment  of  Athens  won  for  him  the  denunciation  of 
contemporaries,  but  made  his  city  the  admiration  of  the  world. 
The  Parthenon  (Figs.  16  and  17),  the  Propylaea  of  the  Acropo- 
lis, the  temple  of  Athena  Nike",  and  the  Erechtheum  (Fig  18), 
show  the  extreme  refinement  which  Greek  art  maintained  for 
a  few  years  before  seeking  other  less  subtle  expressions. 
The  collaboration  of  Phidias  and  his  school  gave  a  noble  and 
appropriate  sculptured  decoration.  At  the  Piraeus,  where 
Pericles  had  almost  a  free  hand,  he  brought  the  whole  city 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  55 

into  architectural  composition,  according  to  a  rectangular 
street  plan  made  by  Hippodamus  of  Miletus. 

Central  period:  fourth  century.  The  fourth  century  found 
the  mainland  exhausted  by  civil  war,  which  continued  with 
brief  intervals  till  the  Macedonian  conquest,  and  gave  little 
encouragement  to  building.  At  defeated  Athens,  especially, 
means  were  lacking  for  anything  but  immediate  practical 
needs.  It  was  from  Athens,  however,  with  her  daring  inno- 
vations, her  wonderful  monuments  of  the  preceding  period, 
that  the  other  cities  took  their  inspiration.  Sparta  and 
Thebes,  which  the  turn  of  events  successively  brought  to 
power,  gave  signs  of  entering  on  the  patronage  of  art,  although 
time  did  not  permit  them  to  accomplish  much.  The  new 
cities  of  the  Peloponnesus,  Mantinea,  Megalopolis,  and 
Messene,  are  typical  of  the  period.  In  the  west,  the  Cartha- 
ginian destruction  of  Greek  cities  in  Sicily  in  409-406  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  long  paralysis,  during  which  the  palace  of  the 
tyrant  Dionysius  at  Syracuse  was  almost  the  only  important 
production.  With  the  civic  revival  there  toward  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  some  temple-building  once  more  began. 
It  was  in  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  though  they  were  again 
partly  under  Persian  rule,  that  the  greatest  and  most  char- 
acteristic monuments  of  the  time  were  erected.  The  re- 
building of  the  temples,  many  of  which  had  lain  in  ruins  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  was  commenced  on  a  scale  that 
overshadowed  everything  in  the  mother  country.  The  Ionic 
temples  at  Ephesus  and  Priene  were  completed  by  the  time 
of  Alexander's  invasion,  334;  the  temple  at  Didyma,  near 
Miletus,  the  greatest  of  all,  was  begun  immediately  after. 
For  the  half-independent  rulers  of  Caria,  Greek  artists  laid 
out  the  city  of  Halicarnassus,  and  built  there  the  colossal 
tomb  of  Mausolus  which  has  given  its  name  permanently 
to  funerary  architecture. 

Types  of  buildings  in  the  central  period.  The  temple  still 
retained  first  place  in  importance,  though  not  in  the  same 
degree  as  formerly.  In  Greece  as  well  as  in  Asia,  at  the 
national  religious  centers,  notably  Olympia  and  Delos,  im- 
portant monuments  were  added,  and  Epidaurus  took  rank 
with  these  through  a  group  of  new  buildings  designed  by  the 
sculptor  Polyclitus  the  younger.  In  Asia  the  early  native 


56          A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

forms  of  the  Ionic  order  were  matured  and  developed.  In 
Greece,  the  Doric,  Athenian  in  proportion,  remained  most 
usual  on  the  exterior.  The  atticized  Ionic  and  the  Corinthian 
were  now  used  also,  in  interiors,  and,  above  all,  in  the  beautiful 
circular  temples  which  became  popular.  In  the  west  the 
traditional  Doric  was  still  used  exclusively,  with  but  little 
modification.  Greater  independence  appears  in  the  new 
types,  responding  to  new  requirements.  Every  city  and  every 
great  sanctuary  now  aspired  to  have  its  theater  in  stone,  a 
new  monumental  problem  typical  of  rising  standards  of 
luxury  and  convenience.  By  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
stadion  also  was  lined  with  stone.  At  Megalopolis  a  great 
covered  assembly-hall  was  built  by  the  Arcadians,  with 
terraced  seats  for  six  thousand  men.  On  the  other  hand, 
architecture  entered  the  service  of  individuals,  wealthy 
citizens  vying  with  the  princes  of  the  monarchical  states  in 
the  erection  of  elaborate  houses  and  tombs. 

Hellenistic  period.  The  years  334  to  323  witnessed  Alexan- 
der's brilliant  conquests,  which  opened  the  east  to  Greek  in- 
fluence, not  without  a  certain  reaction  on  the  art  of  Greece 
itself.  Outer  circumstances  were  never  more  favorable  to 
art  than  in  the  new  empires  of  his  successors,  where  all  was 
to  be  created,  yet  where  every  means  was  at  hand.  The  new 
capitals,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and,  later,  Pergamon,  became 
the  centers  of  artistic  activity,  though  Rhodes  and  the  Ionian 
cities  pressed  them  closely.  In  Greece  itself  the  great  heritage 
of  earlier  monuments  and  the  prevailing  financial  exhaustion 
were  unfavorable  to  building.  The  aspect  of  Athens,  Delphi, 
and  Olympia,  for  instance,  remained  practically  unchanged. 
Only  in  regions  now  first  raised  to  importance,  such  as  ^Etolia 
and  Epirus,  were  many  considerable  monuments  erected. 
In  Sicily  official  art  had  its  last  after-glow  under  the  later 
tyrants  of  Syracuse. 

Changes  in  problems.  Everywhere  architecture  had  to  con- 
cern itself  with  problems  in  the  design  of  whole  cities.  It  fol- 
lowed the  precedents  earlier  set  by  Hippodamus  in  the  wide- 
spread adoption  of  a  rectangular  plan.  Traffic  and  hygiene 
were  considered,  as  well  as  appearance.  At  Alexandria  the 
two  chief  streets  had  a  'breadth  of  over  a  hundred  feet,  with 
sswers  and  water-mains  beneath.  The  city  took  on  some  of 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  57 

the  many  aspects  of  a  modern  metropolis,  with  its  museum 
and  library,  its  great  park,  its  vast  harbor  with  the  mole,  and 
the  great  lighthouse  called  the  Pharos.  The  embellishment  of 
these  cities  gave  opportunities  which  the  architects  employed 
in  striving  to  outdo  all  previous  works  in  splendor  and  mag- 
nificence. The  execution  of  the  great  temples  at  Miletus  and 
Magnesia,  the  gigantic  altars  of  Pergamon  and  of  Syracuse, 
the  Serapeion  at  Alexandria  within  its  vast  colonnaded  court, 
all  fell  in  this  period.  Still  more  characteristic  were  the 
sumptuous  palaces  of  the  rulers  and  even  of  private  citizens, 
the  public  buildings  of  every  kind,  council-houses,  and  gym- 
nasia. Philanthropy  sometimes  gave  architecture  a  new  direc- 
tion, as  when  parks  and  gymnasia  were  established  to  keep 
some  benefactor  of  the  city  in  grateful  remembrance,  the 
tomb  or  a  commemorative  monument  being  a  central  but 
subordinate  feature.  The  market-places  were  surrounded  by 
porticos  and  the  chief  streets  even  were  lined  with  colon- 
nades. 

Changes  in  detail.  Amid  all  this  lavishness  something  was 
inevitably  lost.  The  extreme  refinements  of  form,  the  subtle 
curves,  were  succeeded  by  a  richer  ornament  and  a  bolder 
membering.  The  result  was  technically  more  facile,  more 
easily  appreciated,  and  by  these  very  qualities  it  was  fitted 
to  the  needs  of  a  sophisticated  and  complex  civilization.  The 
Ionic  order,  changed  by  return  influences  from  Athens  into 
its  final  shape,  was  now  the.  favorite;  the  Corinthian  order 
became  more  and  more  common.  As  the  interchange  of 
ideas  increased,  the  form  of  the  column  was  no  longer  de- 
pendent on  racial  tradition.  Instead  there  grew  up  a  prin- 
ciple by  which  the  traditional  forms,  though  kept  distinct, 
were  objects  of  free  choice  according  to  appropriateness  of 
character.  The  arch  and  the  barrel  vault  were  used  oftener 
and  with  greater  boldness,  but  never  without  irreproachable 
abutment  by  solid  masses  of  masonry  or  earth.  It  was  at 
this  time,  above  all,  that  theoretical  writings  multiplied, 
and  mathematical  formulation  made  the  Greek  system 
imitable  in  the  barbarian  world.  Beyond  the  borders  even 
of  Hellenistic  Greece,  Parthia  imitated  her  clumsily  and  Rome 
became  her  most  faithful  pupil. 

Gr&co-Roman  period.     Under  the  domination  of   the  Ro- 


58          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

man  Empire,  the  architecture  of  old  Greek  lands  never  wholly 
lost  its  individuality,  although  Roman  emperors  and  con- 
noisseurs delighted  to  adorn  Athens  with  new  monuments. 
The  transformations  which  continued  to  take  place  in  Greece 
and  Asia  Minor  were  rather  native  developments,  copied  and 
domesticated  at  Rome,  than  importations  from  the  capital. 
A  thousand  years  after  the  age  of  Pericles  we  shall  see  that 
Greek  genius,  rejuvenated  by  fresh  influences  from  the 
Orient,  had  still  vitality  to  produce  a  new  architecture  on  the 
shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  after  Rome  itself  had  fallen  in 
decay. 

Forms  of  detail.  In  Greek  architecture  great  attention 
was  directed  to  the  form  of  individual  details,  to  those  of 
the  columnar  systems,  above  all,  and  knowledge  of  these  and 
their  relations  is  correspondingly  necessary  for  intelligent 
study  of  buildings. 

Doric  forms.  The  Doric  forms  show  a  fixity  in  their  main 
lines  that  is  not  less  surprising  than  the  incredibly  painful 
experimentation  by  which  the  precise  canonical  relations  were 
finally  evolved  (Fig.  19).  The  constant  elements  which  dis- 
tinguish the  style  are  the  capital,  with  its  cushion  or  echinus, 
its  heavy,  square  projecting  abacus;  the  frieze,  interposed 
between  cornice  and  architrave,  with  its  alternation  of  re- 
cessed metopes  and  fluted  triglyphs;  and  the  muiules  or 
hanging  plates  on  the  under  side  of  the  cornice.  The  shaft 
of  the  column  tapered  from  bottom  to  top,  diminishing  a 
fifth  to  a  third  of  its  lower  diameter,  usually  with  a  slight 
curve  or  swelling,  called  the  entasis.  The  line  of  the  shaft 
was  emphasized  by  vertical  flutings,  normally  twenty  in 
number  during  the  central  period,  meeting  on  a  sharp  edge 
or  arris.  Until  after  the  Periclean  age  the  column  remained 
comparatively  stout,  ranging  in  height  between  four  and  six 
times  its  lower  diameter.  Such  a  massive  support  could  rest 
directly  on  a  platform  without  seeming  to  need  a  transition, 
and  a  separate  molded  base  was,  in  fact,  added  only  in  a  very 
few  exceptional  cases.  A  common  base,  or  stylobate,  was 
always  furnished,  however,  by  raising  any  Doric  portico  at 
least  one  step  above  its  surroundings. 

Formal  relationships  in  the  Doric  order.  Critics  have  been 
unanimous  in  recognizing  in  the  mature  Doric  system  an 


FIG.  IQ — THE  GREEK  DORIC  ORDER 


60          A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

organic  whole  of  the  most  expressive  character.  Its  prin- 
ciple consists,  above  all,  in  the  masterly  balance  of  the  vertical 
and  the  horizontal  tendencies  established  by  the  columns 
and  the  entablature,  and  in  the  management  of  the  transition 
between  them.  The  vertical  "movement"  of  the  fluted 
column  is  arrested,  and  the  horizontal  movement  of  the 
entablature  is  foreshadowed,  by  the  horizontal  abacus. 
This  is  itself  prepared  for  by  the  spreading  echinus  with  its 
encircling  bands  at  the  base,  and  by  the  incision  creating  a 
neck  below.  The  vertical  lines  of  the  columns  are  again  taken 
up  by  the  triglyphs,  less  strongly  emphasized,  but  twice  as 
numerous;  once  more  arrested  by  their  little  cap,  and  finally 
echoed  in  the  low  mutules,  doubled  to  form  almost  a  con- 
tinuous line,  in  which  the  transition  is  completed.  Even  the 
guttcB  or  "drops"  beneath  the  triglyphs  and  mutules — 
thought  to  be  descendants  of  pins  in  primitive  wooden  fram- 
ing— have  equally  their  function  in  the  stone  entablature. 
They  are  ultimate  mediating  elements  between  horizontal 
and  vertical. 

Structural  expressions  in  the  Doric  order.  Coupled  with  all 
these  purely  spatial  relationships  are  equally  subtle  expres- 
sions of  structural  functions.  The  echinus  seems  to  give 
elastic  support ;  the  triglyphs  to  act  as  a  series  of  posts  bearing 
the  cornice,  with  the  metopes  as  filling-plates  between.  In 
many  cases,  to  be  sure,  such  members  fulfilled  these  functions 
only  in  appearance.  The  projection  of  the  capital  was  re- 
lieved of  any  actual  load  by  a  slightly  raised  surface  over 
the  shaft.  Triglyphs  and  metopes,  instead  of  being  articulate, 
were  often  cut  on  a  single  block.  It  was  the  visual  emphasis 
on  structure  which  was  valued. 

The  problem  of  the  angle.  The  inherent  difficulty  of  the 
mature  Greek  Doric  system  appeared  when  it  was  used  in  a 
colonnade  turning  at  right  angles,  such  as  the  temple  peristyle 
which  was  its  principal  application.  Since  the  thickness  of 
the  column  and  the  architrave  was  greater  than  the  width  of 
the  triglyph,  some  adjustment  was  necessary  to  bring  the 
triglyph  at  the  corner  of  the  frieze,  where  it  was  felt  to  be 
needed  both  as  a  structural  expression  and  as  a  musical 
cadence.  The  problem  was  variously  solved:  by  widening 
the  metopes  near  the  corner;  by  spacing  the  triglyphs  equally 


Doric  Entablature 
from  the  Parthenon 


Doric  Entablature 

Retranslated  into  wood  construction 


FIG.  2O — THE  GREEi:  DORIC  ORDER,  WITH  A  RETRANSLATION  INTO 
WOOD.     (AFTER  DURM) 


62          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

from  one  corner  of  the  frieze  to  the  other  and  abandoning 
exactitude  of  axial  relation  of  columns  and  triglyphs ;  by  con- 
tracting the  spacing  of  the  corner  columns;  and  by  various 
combinations  of  these  methods.  The  adjustments  neces- 
sary were  so  complex  that  it  may  well  have  been  from  this 
cause  that  noted  architects  of  the  fourth  century,  familiar 
with  the  Athenian  solutions,  but  preferring  a  simpler  arrange- 
ment, stigmatized  the  Doric  style  as  unfit  for  the  building  of 
temples. 

Doric  origins.  The  origin  of  many  forms  has  been  sought 
in  a  wooden  construction  which  was  superseded  by  the  one  of 
stone.  Elements  apparently  imitative  of  the  ends  of  wooden 
beams  occur  in  the  entablature  (Fig.  20).  The  complete 
absence  of  any  fragments  of  entablature  among  the  ruins  of 
certain  monuments  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  entablatures 
of  wood,  sometimes  incased  in  terra-cotta,  were  indeed  oc- 
casionally preserved  throughout  the  classical  period.  Classic 
writers  mention  also  wooden  columns  in  some  buildings, 
notably  the  temple  of  Hera  at  Olympia.  Here  the  testimony 
is 'confirmed  by  the  remains,  which  show  columns  of  every 
period  in  the  same  building,  presumably  inserted  one  by  one 
as  the  wooden  columns  decayed.  Columns  of  wood,  however, 
can  scarcely  have  suggested  the  form  of  the  massive  Doric 
column.  The  wooden  supports  which  it  replaced  must  have 
been  of  some  different  proportions  and  detail,  now  uncertain. 
For  the  capital,  at  least,  Mycenaean  forms  furnished  the  pro- 
totype (cf.  Figs.  15  and  21),  as  they  did  for  the  plan  of  the 
temple  and  its  early  mode  of  construction.  Only  certain 
minor  motives  of  ornament  can  have  been  derived  from 
outside  of  Greece,  and  these  were  forms  like  the  fret,  or 
meander,  current  in  most  primitive  art,  which  the  Greeks 
may  well  have  invented  independently. 

Doric  development.  The  substitution  of  stone  for  wood  and 
terra-cotta  did  not  at  once  produce  the  consistent  normal 
arrangement  which  has  already  been  described.  A  long  de- 
velopment preceded  the  central  moment,  and  continued  after 
this  moment  was  past.  This  development  proceeded  steadily 
toward  higher  organization  in  such  technical  matters  as  the 
jointing  of  the  stones,  such  problems  as  those  presented  by 
the  corner  triglyph,  the  profiling  of  the  capital,  the  membering 


63 

of  the  entablature,  and  the  carrying  through  of  a  module  or 
common  divisor  of  the  dimensions;  but  it  left  great  local 
freedom  in  the  choice  of  proportions.  Such  matters  as  the 
ratio  of  diameter  to  height  in  the  column,  of  diameter  to  inter- 
columination,  of  lower  diameter  to  upper  diameter,  which 
were  formerly  thought  to  have  evolved  uniformly  in  the 
direction  of  increasing  slenderness,  openness,  and  vertically, 
are  now  seen  to  vary  far  more  according  to  local  traditions 
which  remained  relatively  stable,  influenced  in  part  by  the 
building  material  available.  The  idea  of  a  universal  trend 
in  matters  of  proportion  was.  one  arising  from  the  greater 
number  of  early  monuments  preserved  from  regions  and  cities 
where  heavy  proportions  prevailed,  and  from  the  number  and 
prominence  of  later  monuments  from  regions  like  Attica,  with 
their  slender  columns  of  marble.  The  later  temples  of  the 
west,  however,  kept  the  massiveness  of  their  columns  along 
with  their  coarser  material;  those  of  the  east  likewise  show 
no  positive  tendency. 

Archaic  period.  During  the  archaic  period  the  capital 
retained  the  wide  and  bulging  echinus  of  its  Mycenaean 
ancestor,  as  well  as  the  hollow  beneath  (Fig.  21).  The 
architrave  was  narrow,  flush  with  the  upper  face  of  the 


T  of  Demeter  at  Paeatum  T  at  ^Egina  Parthenon 

Drawn  with  upper  diameters  equal 


T  at  Nemea 


FIG.    21 — PROFILES    OF    GREEK    DORIC    CAPITALS,    ARRANGED    IN    CHRONO- 
LOGICAL  ORDER 


column  or  even  set  back  from  it;  the  triglyphs  were  broad, 
with  the  result  that  corner  triglyphs  could  still  be  nearly  on 
the  axes  of  the  columns.  The  resulting  metopes,  however, 
were  scanty,  so  that  the  mutules  over  them  had  often  to  be 
less  broad  than  those  over  the  triglyphs.  Little  attention 
was  paid  to  the  ordering  of  the  stone  joints,  which  were, 
to  be  sure,  covered  by  the  coating  of  stucco  always  used  with 


64          A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  porous  limestone  then  employed.  The  search  for  a 
module  began  certainly  by  the  middle  of  the  period,  although 
it  was  still  tentative.  Architects  hesitated  between  the 
lower  diameter  and  the  mean  diameter  of  the  columns  for  its 
unit,  and  employed  an  independent  system  for  the  frieze. 

Central  period.  With  the  central  period  the  hollow  of  the 
capital  disappeared  and  the  echinus  took  on  a  steeper,  hyper- 
bolic profile  of  the  utmost  subtlety.  The  architrave  lost  the 
narrowness  reminiscent  of  wooden  origins,  but,  in  widening, 
made  the  problem  of  a  corner  triglyph  a  serious  one.  In  the 
solution  adopted,  a  contraction  in  the  spacing  of  the  columns 
at  corners  became  universal.  The  entablature  took  on  its 
normal  form,  and  the  stone-jointing,  exposed  when  marble  was 
used,  became  regular,  bearing  an  organic  relation  to  the 
architectural  forms.  A  single  module  based  on  the  mean 
diameter  of  the  column  seems  to  have  been  applied  throughout 
the  columnar  system,  including  the  entablature. 

Late  period.  The  forms  thus  fully  established  in  the  fifth 
century  suffered  but  little  subsequent  change.  Except  in  the 
west,  to  be  sure,  the  Doric  style  was  almost  abandoned  by  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century.  It  is  perhaps  due  to  influence 
from  Ionic  forms  that  a  late  Doric  example  on  the  mainland, 
in  the  temple  at  Nemea,  shows  such  slender  proportions — 
the  height  of  the  column  six  and  one-half  times  its  lower 
diameter.  Late  capitals  generally  lack  the  subtlety  of  line 
of  the  mature  form;  their  echinus  is  either  almost  straight 
or  rounded  into  a  quadrant. 

Ionic  forms.  The  characteristic  features  of  the  Ionic 
columnar  system,  the  enduring  elements  of  contrast  with  the 
Doric,  are  especially  the  volute  capital,  the  molded  base,  and 
the  cornice,  with  its  blocks  or  dentils.  Unlike  the  Doric 
capital,  the  Ionic  projects  on  two  sides  only,  in  the  direction 
of  the  architrave.  A  pair  of  spiral  scrolls  or  volutes  forms  a 
seemingly  resilient  intermediate  between  shaft  and  load.  In 
the  more  customary  form  which  became  universal,  these 
volutes  were  united  across  the  top  by  a  band,  resting  on  a 
circle  of  leaves  which  later  took  the  form  of  an  echinus  deco- 
rated with  "egg  and  dart."  The  abacus  consisted  only  of  a 
narrow  molded  band.  The  slender  shaft  of  the  Ionic  column 
always  received  an  individual  base.  Among  many  forms, 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  65 

the  most  widely  adopted  in  later  times  was  the  Attic  base — 
two  convex  moldings  or  toruses,  with  a  hollow  or  scotia  be- 
tween. The  shaft  itself  ranged  from  seven  and  one-half  to 
ten  lower  diameters  in  height,  with  a  slight  entasis,  and  with 
twenty-four  flutes,  normally  separated  by  small,  flat  fillets. 
The  architrave  was  divided  into  three  faces,  each  projecting 
slightly  over  the  one  below.  The  typical  cornice  was  dis- 
tinguished by  a  row  of  small  projecting  blocks,  which  took  the 
name  of  dentils  from  their  suggestion  of  teeth.  When  a 
frieze  was  introduced  between  architrave  and  cornice  it  had 
no  subdivision  into  isolated  panels  like  the  metopes,  and  was 
usually  decorated  with  a  continuous  band  of  sculpture. 

Formal  relationships  in  the  Ionic  order.  The  Ionic  system, 
especially  in  the  examples  without  a  frieze,  presents  a  har- 
monization of  horizontals  and  verticals  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Doric  order,  though  not  carried  into  such  fine  detail.  The 
dentils  correspond  both  to  triglyphs  and  mutules,  and  serve 
the  artistic  functions  of  both.  The  capital  is  in  some  respects 
even  better  fitted  than  the  Doric  for  the  task  of  carrying  a 
transverse  lintel,  for  its  projections  are  limited  to  the  sides 
where  support  appears  to  be  needed.  The  difference  between 
its  faces  creates  a  difficulty,  however,  when  a  corner  is  to  be 
turned — a  difficulty  no  less  real  than  that  created  in  the  Doric 
order  by  the  triglyphs.  The  usual  solution  adopted  was  to 
place  pairs  of  scrolls  on  the  two  adjacent  exterior  faces,  mak- 
ing the  corner  on  which  they  met  project  diagonally,  and 
letting  the  rear  faces  intersect  in  the  interior  angle. 

Ionic  origins.  The  Ionic  structural  forms  seem  to  have 
followed  wooden  prototypes  still  more  closely  than  the  Doric, 
even  in  the  column  and  the  capital  (Fig.  22).  The  columns 
are  relatively  very  slender;  their  capitals  suggest  the  saddle- 
piece  still  found  in  heavy  wooden  framing.  Indeed  the  oldest 
capitals  show  a  simple  block,  rounded  at  the  lower  corners, 
with  scrolls  merely  painted  on  the  faces.  The  beam-ends  in 
the  entablature  are  unmistakable.  The  decorative  forms, 
among  which  the  scrolls  of  the  capital  are  the  most  note- 
worthy, can  be  traced  to  origins  in  the  interior  of  Asia. 

Ionic  development.  The  Ionic  development,  like  the  Doric, 
was  less  a  change  of  proportions  in  a  definite  direction  than  a 
change  of  character.  The  exuberance  of  the  early  examples 


66 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


was  transformed  into  sleekness,  coherence,  and  elegance, 
simultaneously  with  the  taking  up  of  Doric  elements.  The 
volutes  of  the  early  capital  were  widely  projecting,  leaving 
the  echinus  below  exposed  for  its  full  circumference;  later 
they  were  drawn  in  and  reduced  in  relative  importance. 
The  frieze  was  first  introduced  into  the  entablature  by  the 
Athenian  architects  of  the  time  of  Pericles,  as  a  result  partly 
of  their  desire  for  richer  sculptured  decoration,  partly  of  their 


Ionic  entablature  translated  tnio  wood  conslruction 


FIG.    22 — IONIC    ENTABLATURE,     RETRANSLATED     INTO    WOOD.       (AFTER 

DURM) 


Doric  training.  With  a  fine  appreciation  of  structural  expres- 
sions as  well  as  of  artistic  suitability  they  suppressed  the  dentils 
when  they  used  the  frieze,  since  these  would  have  no  longer 
come  opposite  the  ceiling  beams,  and  would  have  seemed  to 
crush  the  delicate  figure  sculpture  employed.  Later  archi- 
tects were  not  so  scrupulous,  and  Hermogenes,  who  trans- 
planted the  Athenian  innovations  to  Asia  in  the  third  century, 
used  heavy  dentils  over  a  frieze  of  small  figures  (Fig.  23). 
The  final  harmonization  was  reached  in  the  great  temple  at 
Didyma,  where  the  frieze  was  brought  into  scale  with  the 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


67 


dentils   by   a  repeating  decoration   of  large   Medusa-heads 
with  garlands  festooned  between. 

Corinthian  forms.  The  Corinthian  forms  did  not  compose 
in  Greece  a  system  completely  distinct.  They  were  essentially 
independent  inventions,  by  which  one  or  another  of  the 
traditional  Doric 
or  Ionic  forms 
could  be  replaced, 
and  which  their 
common  tendency 
to  richness  fitted 
for  use  in  com- 
bination. Earliest 
and  most  char- 
acteristic was  the 
capital,  consisting 
essentially  of  an 
inverted  bell,  sur- 
rounded by  rows  of 
acanthus  leaves, 
with  pairs  of  scrolls 
or  volutes  support- 
ing the  corners  of 
the  abacus.  The 
example  from 
Epidaurus  (Fig. 
24)  shows  the  type 
which  later  be- 
came normal,  with 
two  rows  of  eight 
leaves  each,  placed 
alternately,  exe- 
cuted with  a  sharp- 
ness and  delicacy  in  which  Greek  carving  is  seen  at  its  best. 
Further  elements  which,  through  association,  contributed  to 
the  development  of  a  new  order,  were  the  curved  frieze,  and 
the  cornice  with  supporting  brackets — consoles,  or  modillions, 
as  they  are  called.  The  ripened  product  of  this  development 
had  a  harmonious  luxuriance  and  an  adaptability  to  varied 
uses  which  gave  it  the  advantage  over  the  Doric  and  Ionic 


FIG.    23 — MAGNESIA. 
DETAILS. 


TEMPLE   OF   ARTEMIS. 

(HUMANN) 


68          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

forms.     Here  there  was  neither  the  problem  of  a  corner 
triglyph  nor  that  of  an  angle  capital. 

Formal  relationships  in  the  Corinthian  order.  As  in  the 
Ionic  examples  in  which  a  plain  frieze  reinforced  the  tendency 
of  the  architrave,  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  were  strongly 
opposed  rather  than  blended,  but  the  capital,  by  its  bell  and 


FIG.    24 — EPIDAURUS.       CORINTHIAN    CAPITAL    OF    THE    THOLOS 

silhouette,  carried  the  line  of  the  shaft  over  into  the  en- 
tablature in  a  way  which  was  none  the  less  adequate. 

Corinthian  development.  The  name  Corinthian  comes  from 
Vitruvius,  who  relates  the  famous  myth  of  the  invention  of 
the  capital  by  Callimachus  at  Corinth,  on  a  suggestion  from 
acanthus  leaves  growing  about  a  basket,  with  tendrils  curling 
beneath  a  tile  laid  over  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  earliest 
example  preserved  is  the  single  capital  employed  by  Iktinos 
at  Bassae,  about  420,  inspired  very  possibly  by  the  later  loti- 
form  capital  of  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  the  Athenians  were 
in  close  touch  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  At  Bassae 
the  Corinthian  column  is  simply  a  variant  employed  side  by 
side  with  the  Ionic,  under  the  same  entablature  of  Attic-Ionic 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


69 


form.  At  Epidaurus  and  elsewhere,  in  the  fourth  century, 
it  was  often  employed  independently  for  an  interior  colonnade, 
and  in  334  it  was  used  on  an  exterior  for  the  first  time  we 
know,  in  the  delicate  Monument  of  Lysi crates'  in  Athens 
(Fig.  25).  The  earliest  building  still  preserved  in  which 
Corinthian  ordonnance  was  employed  throughout  on  large 
scale  is  again  at 
Athens,  the  gi- 
gantic temple  of 
Zeus,  carried  up 
in  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C.  on  the 
foundations  laid 
long  before  by 
Pisistratus.  As 
the  work  was 
done  at  the 
charge  of  the 
Seleucid  em- 
peror, Antiochus 
IV.,  it  may  well 
be  questioned 
whether  the  lost 
monuments  of 
Antioch  may  not 
have  afforded  still 
earlier  examples 
of  a  monumental 
use  of  Corinthian 
forms.  These 

reached  their  greatest  vogue  and  highest  development  under 
such  Hellenistic  sovereigns  and  their  successors  the  Romans. 

Figure  supports.  In  exceptional  cases  figures  of  men  or  of 
women  were  used  as  supports — Atlantes  or  caryatids,  as  they 
are  called — with  rich  and  graceful  results.  This  was  notably 
so  in  the  "Porch  of  the  Maidens"  of  the  Erechtheum  at 
Athens  (Fig.  18). 

Size  and  proportion  of  members  of  the  columnar  orders. 
The  size  of  members  in  all  the  orders  varied  greatly  without 
much  affecting  their  form.  Examples  of  all  three  occur  in 


FIG.    25 — ATHENS.      MONUMENT   OF   LYSICRATES 


70          A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

which  the  columns  are  over  fifty  feet  in  height,  as  well  as 
others  in  which  they  are  less  than  fifteen.  The  distance  from 
axis  to  axis  of  the  columns  ranged  from  five  feet  two  inches 
in  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  to  twenty-one  feet  nine  inches 
in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Selinus.  The  relation  between 
height  and  spacing  was  for  the  most  part  an  arbitrary  and 


FIG.    26 — AKRAGAS.      TEMPLE    OF    OLYMPIAN    ZEUS.      (RESTORED   BY  E.   H. 
TRYSELL,    AFTER    KOLDEWEY) 

formal  one,  rather  than  a  variable  one  determined  by  the 
ultimate  bearing  power  of  the  materials.  In  temples,  the 
spacing  of  Doric  columns  was  in  general  about  one-half  their 
height,  that  of  Ionic  columns  about  one-third  their  height. 
If  structural  considerations  had  been  dominant  the  length 
of  the  lintels  would  have  remained  more  nearly  fixed,  and  the 
ratios  would  have  tended  to  vary  inversely  as  the  height  of 
the  columns.  The  proportions  of  architraves  are  likewise  not 
strictly  dependent  on  any  statical  law,  though  marble  archi- 
traves, and  late  architraves  generally,  are  relatively  somewhat 
thinner  than  the  early  ones  of  coarse  limestone.  Doric 
architraves  of  the  mature  period,  whether  of  stone  or  marble, 
have  a  height  of  about  one-third  of  their  length;  Ionic  archi- 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  71 

traves  of  the  Hellenistic  period,  about  one-quarter.  Among 
the  other  factors  involved  there  would  seem  thus  to  have  been 
an  increasing  structural  boldness.  The  variety  in  the  propor- 
tions of  constructive  forms  of  different  orders,  the  identity 
of  proportions  in  the  same  order  at  different  scales,  are  in- 
dications, however,  of  a  wide  margin  of  safety,  a  habitual 
generosity  of  strength. 

Walls.  Aside  from  the  employment  of  the  column  with  its 
rich  apparatus,  Greek  buildings  were  simple  almost  to  bareness. 
The  Greeks  ordinarily  applied  no  relief  ornament  to  walls, 
but  gained  their  effect  by  the  regular  jointing  of  finely  coursed 
rnasonry.  Smooth-faced  blocks  were  used  for  the  best  work; 
but  in  heavy  walls  blocks  dressed  only  at  the  edges,  or  with 
the  joints  emphasized  by  marginal  draftings,  were  employed, 
a  practice  increasing  as  time  went  on.  In  cases  where  a  wall 
and  a  colonnade  were  fused,  with  the  columns  attached  or 
engaged  to  the  wall,  as  in  the  west  fagade  of  the  Erechtheum 
(Fig.  1 8)  or  the  "Temple  of  the  Giants"  at  Akragas  (Fig.  26), 
this  was  usually  due  to  exceptional  causes,  which  over- 
balanced the  Greek  tendency  toward  simplicity  of  structural 
expression.  Where  the  end  of  a  wall  had  to  support  an 
architrave  it  was  treated  as  a  special  member,  the  anta,  with 
its  own  capital  and  base,  differing  from  those  of  the  column. 

Moldings.  The  base  and  the  crown  of  the  wall,  the  transi- 
tion between  horizontal  and  vertical,  were  emphasized  and 
rendered  less  abrupt  by  special  members,  ranging  from  a 
simple  vertical  plinth  or  fascia  to  an  elaborate  suite  of  carved 
moldings.  These  moldings  (Fig.  27),  of  which  we  have 
already  seen  examples  in  the  Doric  echinus  and  the  Ionic  base, 
are  among  the  most  enduring  of  Greek  creations.  Based 
on  the  simple  and  universal  forms  of  the  convex,  concave, 
and  reverse  curves,  they  attained  distinction  by  subtle  variety 
of  contour,  never  following  an  obvious  circular  arc,  and  by 
judicious  selection  for  the  different  functions  of  crowning, 
support,  and  footing.  A  characteristic  instance  is  the  em- 
ployment of  the  reverse  curve,  or  cyma.  The  cyma  recta, 
in  which  the  thin  concave  portion  projects,  was  ordinarily 
used  only  as  a  free  crowning  feature;  whereas  the  curve  in 
its  other  position,  the  cyma  reversa,  was  used  when  strength 

was  required.     For  the  base  of  the  wall  in  Doric  buildings,  a 
4 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


high  course  of  stones  standing  vertically,  with  a  projecting 
plinth  below,  was  used;  in  Ionic  buildings,  molded  bases 
analogous  to  those  of  the  antae,  having  as  their  most  frequent 
constituents  a  torus  or  a  reversed  cyma,  and  a  plinth.  For 
the  support  of  projecting  beams  or  cornices  the  Doric  builders 

used  a  characteristic 
hooked  beak-molding, 
the  Ionic  builders  the 
ovolo  —  like  the 
echinus  in  profile — or 
the  cyma  reversa. 
Richer  combinations 
show  a  studied  flow 
and  contrast  of  line, 
punctuated  by  narrow 
flat  fillets  or  half- 
round  beads. 

Ornament.  Empha- 
sis on  the  structural 
anatomy  was  also 

C  gained  by  carving  and 

jgyggj_,;  painting.    These  were 

usually    confined    to 
restricted  fields,  as  in 
the  Doric  and   Ionic 
friezes,  contrasting 
with  the  simplicity  of 
the  wall  surfaces. 
Moldings   themselves 
FIG.  27 — GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MOLDINGS.       were  thus  enriched  by 
(REYNAUD)  painting  in  the  Doric 

order,  by  carving,  re- 
inforced by  color,  in  the  Ionic  marble.  The  greatest  judg- 
ment was  exercised  in  the  selection  of  motives  of  orna- 
mentation to  accentuate  rather  than  disguise  the  form  of 
surface  to  which  they  were  applied.  Thus  the  fret,  with  its 
severe  rectangularity,  was  reserved  for  flat  bands.  Curved 
moldings  were  decorated  with  motives  having  lines  which 
were  parallel  or  perpendicular  to  elements  of  the  surface,  or 
which  repeated  its  profile — the  egg  and  dart  for  the  ovolo,  a 


CYMA  REC" 


TORU5 


FASCIA 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  73 

heart-shaped  leaf  for  the  cyma  reversa — thus  harmonizing 
from  every  point  of  view. 

Doors.  Doors  and  windows  were  always  square-headed 
when  used  monumentally  in  mature  Greek  times.  They  had 
their  jambs  sometimes  vertical,  but  frequently  inclined  some- 
what inward,  a  device  recognized  by  Hellenistic  architects  as 
increasing  the  apparent  height.  Important  openings  were  em- 
phasized by  a  casing  of  bronze,  or  by  projecting  moldings 
similar  to  those  of  an  Ionic  architrave.  These  were  carried 
not  merely  across  the  top,  but  down  the  sides  as  well,  or  even, 
in  the  case  of  windows,  completely  around.  The  ear,  pro- 
duced by  making  the  lintel  project  beyond  the  jambs,  was  a 
characteristic  instance  of  Greek  structural  emphasis. 

Arches  and  vaults.  In  less  highly  finished  constructions, 
such  as  town  walls  and  substructures,  corbelled  arches  and, 
later,  true  arches  were  often  used.  The  oldest  arched  gate- 
ways preserved,  in  Acarnania,  do  not  date  before  the  fifth 
century.  In  the  fourth  century  the  barrel  vault  was  used  for 
certain  subterranean  tomb  chambers.  In  the  second  cen- 
tury, among  a  number  of  vaults  at  Pergamon,  occurs  an 
arched  bridge  of  the  bold  span  of  twenty-seven  feet.  Thus 
the  arch,  which  was  scarcely  an  element  of  Greek  architecture 
in  its  first  prime,  was  handled  in  Hellenistic  times  with 
steadily  increasing  technical  mastery. 

Ceilings,  roofs,  gables,  acroteria.  The  roofs  of  Greek  build- 
ings were  of  tile,  supported  by  wooden  beams,  which  usually 
rested  on  intermediate  walls  or  columns.  A  knowledge  of 
the  truss  is  not  proved.  In  most  cases  the  beams  must  have 
remained  visible  from  below,  though  in  some  examples  wooden 
ceilings  with  panels  or  coffers  are  possible.  Where  marble  was 
at  command  its  strength  made  stone  ceilings  over  the  temple 
porticos  technically  possible.  In  the  north  porch  of  the 
Erechtheum  there  are  marble  beams  twenty  feet  in  length. 
The  gable  roof,  traditional  from  Mycenaean  days,  was  usual; 
hip-roofs,  with  four  slopes,  were  rare.  The  gables  formed  tri- 
angular pediments,  with  the  cornice  carried  up  the  slope,  and 
its  members,  except  the  crowning  cyma,  or  gutter,  running 
across  horizontally  also.  The  pediments  were  often  filled  with 
sculpture  in  relief  or  in  the  round,  and  the  corners  of  the  gable 
were  accentuated  by  sculptured  ornaments  called  acroteria. 


74          A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Larger  elements  of  composition.  In  the  larger  elements  of 
composition  Greek  architecture  showed  the  same  conservatism 
as  in  the  details.  At  the  basis  of  the  chief  national  forms  lay 
the  megaron,  which  remained  the  essential  element  of  the 
Greek  house  after  the  Dorian  invasion,  as  it  had  been  in 
Mycenaean  times.  The  long,  narrow  hall,  either  with  a  single 
nave  or  divided  by  longitudinal  ranges  of  columns  into  two 
or  three  aisles,  remained  the  most  characteristic  element  of 
Greek  plans,  capable  of  varied  applications.  It  was  em- 
ployed for  the  temple,  for  the  stoa,  the  most  typical  of 
Greek  secular  buildings,  and  commonly  for  any  buildings 
which  might  be  required  for  extraordinary  purposes,  such  as 
the  Athenian  arsenal  at  the  Piraeus.  During  the  periods  of 
native  development  the  model  was  scarcely  abandoned  except 
under  compulsion,  in  cases  when  it  would  have  had  disad- 
vantages too  serious  to  be  overlooked.  Such  cases  occurred 
when  a  large  company  were  to  assist  at  a  spectacle,  as  in  cer- 
tain halls  of  mysteries,  the  theater,  and  the  odeion,  the  forms 
of  which  were  suggested  directly  by  the  practical  require- 
ments. The  exterior  peristyle,  a  continuous  enveloping  colon- 
nade first  adopted  in  the  temples  (Fig.  28),  was  the  most 
striking  element  of  exterior  effect,  finding  later  applications 
in  tombs  and  monuments.  The  peristylar  court  and  the 
square  hall  with  an  interior  peristyle — essentially  Oriental 
motives — became  acclimated  in  Greece  in  Hellenistic  times. 

Types  of  build-ings.  As  the  first  people  of  democratic 
institutions,  intellectual  freedom,  and  athletic  life,  the 
Greeks  first  met  and  solved  the  architectural  problems  which 
these  involve,  creating  the  council-house,  the  theater,  the 
stadium,  and  other  persistent  European  types.  Private 
life  was  relatively  subordinate  and  domestic  architecture 
was  simple.  Sepulchral  monuments,  in  the  best  Greek 
time,  were  modest  works  of  sculpture.  All  the  resources 
of  the  state  during  its  prime  were  lavished  on  the  public 
buildings,  above  all,  on  the  temples,  the  centers  of  civic 
life.  Rising  perhaps  on  the  very  site  of  a  Mycenaean  palace, 
the  temple,  open  to  every  citizen,  symbolized  the  new 
social  order  with  its  rich  consequences  for  art. 

Religious  buildings.  '  The  forms  of  the  religious  buildings 
were  in  part  conditioned  by  the  nature  of  the  Greek  cults, 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


75 


in  part  by  traditions  of  primitive  origin.  In  the  worship 
of  the  chief  gods,  such  as  Zeus,  Apollo,  Athena,  and  Artemis, 
the  principal  ceremony  was  a  sacrifice  performed,  not  in  a 
closed  room,  but  on  a  great  altar  in  the  open  air.  A  sanc- 
tuary of  relatively  small  size  sufficed  for  the  house  of  the  god, 
giving  shelter  to  an  image  and  to  the  more  perishable  or 


FIG.   28 — P^ESTUM.      THE    GREAT    TEMPLE,    SO-CALLED    "TEMPLE    OF 
NEPTUNE."      (CHIPIEZ) 


more  valuable  offerings.  Though  almost  always  open  to 
the  people,  it  was  not  intended  for  the  assemblage  of  devo- 
tees. In  the  worship  of  certain  infernal  gods  the  ceremonies 
were  performed  behind  closed  doors,  but  in  most  of  these 
mystery-cults  the  number  of  the  initiated  was  small. 

The    temple:     essential    elements.     Under    these    circum- 
stances there  was  usually  no  difficulty  in  adopting  the  form 


76          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  house,  the  deep  and  narrow  rectangular  megaron,  as 
the  fundamental  element  of  the  temple — namely,  the  cella 
or  naos  (Fig.  29  [i]).  This  was  normally  either  undivided 
or  divided  into  a  central  nave  and  narrow  side  aisles. 
Usually  the  cella  was  preceded  by  a  vestibule  or  pronaos, 
with  columns  in  antis  (Fig.  29  [3],  [6],  etc.);  less  often  it 
had  a  closed  vestibule  (Fig.  29  [i],  [2],  [5])  or  none  at  all. 

The  temple:  normal  form.  Though  this  simple  form  alone 
sufficed  for  temples  of  minor  importance,  the  type  which 
became  normal  (Fig.  28)  was  elaborated  by  the  addition 
of  two  other  elements.  The  opisthodomos  (Fig.  29  [6],  [8]) 
• — an  addition  at  the  rear  corresponding  to  the  pronaos,  but 
ordinarily  not  communicating  with  the  cella — was  obviously 
introduced  in  the  interest  of  formal  balance.  The  peristyle, 
a  colonnade  completely  surrounding  the  ensemble  so  far 
described  (Fig.  29  [s]-[8]),  had  no  practical  function  suf- 
ficiently important  to  account  for  its  origin.  The  origin 
should  perhaps  be  sought  in  an  open  canopy  supported  by 
columns,  like  that  over  the  early  Christian  altar.  This  may 
well  have  sufficed  at  first  to  shelter  the  image,  and  then 
have  been  magnified  to  cover  an  inclosing  cell.  Certain  it 
is  that  in  the  temples  of  Doric  style,  in  which  the  arrange- 
ment seems  to  have  originated,  the  peristyle  had  an  almost 
accidental  connection  with  the  cella.  Although  in  front  it 
had  generally  one  column  to  correspond  to  each  of  the  sup- 
ports behind,  these  columns  stood  in  no  exact  relationship 
of  position  either  to  the  walls  or  to  the  columns  of  the 
pronaos. 

The  temple:  other  features.  Other  elements  occasionally 
appeared  in  the  temple,  not  limited  to  any  special  region 
or  period.  There  might  be  an  inner  room  of  special  sanc- 
tity, the  adyton,  housing  the  image  and  opening  toward  the 
cella  (Fig.  29  [i],  [2],  [5]).  A  room  similarly  placed,  but 
opening  to  the  rear,  was  introduced  in  several  temples, 
notably  the  Parthenon,  to  serve  as  a  treasury  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  god.  Intermediate  between  the  simple  cella 
and  the  peristylar  temple  were  the  prostyle  temple,  with 
columns  running  across  the  front,  and  the  amphiprostyle 
form,  where  they  were  repeated  at  the  rear  as  well.  These 
were  sometimes  used  as  the  best  substitute  for  the  peristylar 


FIG.  29  —  VARIETIES  OF  THE 

•                                                                                4 

» 
> 

» 
• 

c 

i;  i  ;j;e 

•      "T"                   I1    1      4 

A 

1! 

i  •„ 

i  , 

•o 

1 

"S 

? 

^ 

* 

> 
> 

•     •!                      i    * 

K 

i 

6» 

GREEK  TEMPLE 

&>Q£^GI£>  dto-^- 

)M»\QnesiA  Temple  of  Artemis  c  22OB.C  | 

tfoX^gSX-o 

> 

LANS  OF  GREEK  TEMPLES 

inus  Me£c\ron  of  Demelcr  C.59OBC 
zri  Primilive  cella  C.575BC. 
vmnus  Temple  (f  Themis  C.5OORC 
ens  Temple  of  .Alhena  Nike  c.-*35DC 
inus  Temple  "C"  C.57OB.C. 
rmpia  Temple  of  Zeus  c.  470  B.C. 
stum  So  called  "BevsiUca"  c  57OBC 

• 

•         •              •  •  •     1         •         • 

.  .    ...  i  .  • 

78          A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

arrangement  when  a  rich  effect  was  desired  in  a  narrow 
space,  as  in  the  precinct  of  Athena  Nike  on  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens  (Fig.  29  [4]). 

The  outer  wall  or  colonnade  of  the  temple  was  supported 
on  a  massive  substructure,  in  the  form  of  steps,  three  being 
the  most  common  number  (Fig.  28).  These  steps,  propor- 
tioned to  the  size  of  the  temple,  were  often  too  high  to  be 
climbed,  and  this  necessitated  a  special  flight  of  practicable 
steps  or  a  ramp  opposite  the  entrance  (Fig.  26).  Cella 
and  peristyle  together  were  covered  by  a  simple  gable  roof, 
the  gables  or  pediments  serving  as  appropriate  fields  for 
sculptured  decoration  (Fig.  17).  The  temple  was  usually 
lighted  only  through  its  great  door  at  the  east,  although  a 
few  Ionic  temples,  like  the  Erechtheum,  certainly  had 
windows  as  well  (Fig.  18).  Some  others  are  known  to  have 
been  "hypagthral,"  or  without  a  roof  over  the  cella,  but 
this  is  now  thought  to  have  been  due  to  incompleteness  or 
to  difficulties  in  the  construction. 

The  temple:  size,  proportions.  In  frontage  few  temples 
exceeded  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet,  although  a  half-dozen 
giants  form  a  class  by  themselves  with  dimensions  nearly 
equal,  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  by  three  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  Some  peristylar  temples  are  as  narrow  as  forty- 
five  or  even  thirty-five  feet,  while  the  temples  without  a 
peristyle,  like  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike,  are  sometimes 
but  twenty  feet  or  less.  The  normal  "hexastyle"  Doric 
fagade,  of  six  columns,  itself  showed  the  most  surprising 
elasticity;  the  Metroon  with  a  width  of  thirty-four  feet, 
and  the  temple  of  Zeus,  with  ninety-one  feet,  stand  side  by 
side  at  Olympia — a  disregard  for  relations  of  scale  which 
was  very  characteristic  of  Greek  architecture.  Beyond  one 
hundred  feet  the  number  of  columns  had  to  be  multiplied, 
reaching  eight  in  the  Parthenon  and  in  the  great  temple  of 
Selinus,  and  ten  in  the  Ionic  temple  of  Apollo  at  Didyma. 
Even  the  smaller  late  Ionic  temples  have  eight  columns  on 
the  front  on  account  of  the  width  of  their  outer  corridors. 
The  length  of  the  peristylar  temples  varied  from  a  little 
more  than  twice  the  width  to  a  little  less  than  three  times, 
no  chronological  tendency  being  traceable  in  .this  propor- 
tion. The  ratio  between  the  number  of  columns  on  the 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  79 

flank  and  on  the  front  also  varied  according  to  no  general 
law,  though  such  high  ratios  as  6  :  17  and  6  :  16  occur  only 
in  the  oldest  Doric  temples,  and  the  low  ratio  of  6  :  n 
only  in  the  most  recent.  The  height  of  the  temple  fagade 
usually  ranged  about  half  its  width — more  for  the  temples 
with  six  columns,  and  less  for  those  with  more  than  six — 
more  in  any  case  for  the  Ionic  than  for  the  Doric. 

Development  of  the  temple:  archaic  period.  In  the  early 
stages  of  the  development  of  the  temple  there  was  much 
local  variety,  not  only  in  the  columnar  system,  but  in  the 
general  arrangement.  In  Greece  proper  the  oldest  temples 
of  which  the  plans  can  be  studied — the  Heraion  at  Olympia 
from  before  700  B.C.,  the  temple  at  Corinth  from  before  600 
— already  show  the  opisthodomos  and  the  triple  division 
of  the  interior,  as  well  as  the  contraction  of  the  corners  of 
the  Doric  peristyle.  In  other  parts  of  Hellas,  however, 
many  less  sophisticated  forms  occur  even  at  a  much  later 
time,  which  may  well  represent  a  more  primitive  stage  of 
development  adhered  to  through  provincial  conservatism. 
Early  temples  in  Ionic  regions  frequently  lacked  the 
peristyle,  which  seems  to  have  been  developed  in  the 
mother  country  after  the  Ionian  emigration,  and  to  have 
been  carried  over  afterward  into  Asia.  Such  great  monu- 
ments as  the  archaic  Artemision  at  Ephesus  and  the  temple 
of  Hera  at  Samos,  both  built  in  the  sixth  century,  show  the 
elaboration  which  the  peristyle  soon  received  on  Ionic  soil. 
In  the  colonies  of  the  West,  though  they  were  founded  later, 
the  single-ended  cella  prevailed  till  the  fifth  century,  and 
the  problems  of  the  peristyle  were  solved  somewhat  clumsily. 
A  sharp  difference  in  the  diameter  and  in  the  spacing  of  the 
columns  of  the  front  and  of  the  flank,  sometimes  found  in  the 
mother  country,  was  here  the  rule  during  the  archaic  period; 
and  the  normal  solution  with  sides  and  front  spaced  alike, 
and  a  contraction  at  the  corners  due  to  the  triglyphs,  does 
not  come  in  until  its  close.  In  several  outlying  regions 
temples  occur  with  the  cella  divided  into  two  aisles  by  a 
single  line  of  columns  (Fig.  29  [2],  [7]) — obviously  a  more 
primitive  device  to  support  the  ridge  over  a  wide  span  than 
the  division  by  two  lines  (Fig.  29  [6],  [8])  which  commended 
itself  to  more  expert  constructors  as  leaving  an  axial  place 


So          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

for  the  image.  This  latter  arrangement  appears  very  rarely 
in  the  West,  most  of  the  cellas  there  being  undivided. 

Local  traditions  in  temple  design.  An  extreme  instance  of 
adherence  to  local  traditions  can  be  seen  at  Selinus,  the  out- 
post of  Greece  in  western  Sicily.  Here  were  two  primitive 
closed  megarons,  each  with  its  adyton;  and  no  less  than 
seven  peristylar  temples  in  which  the  adyton  is  preserved, 
in  three  of  them  even  after  they  had  otherwise  become  com- 
pletely assimilated  to  the  normal  type.  Two  of  the  seven 
retained  the  closed  vestibule  as  well,  and  all  of  the  four 
archaic  ones  had  an  elaboration  of  the  entrance  front, 
either  by  a  second  transverse  line  of  columns  or  by  a 
prostyle  development  of  the  cella,  which  has  few  examples 
elsewhere.  Partly  as  a  result  of  this  multiplication  of 
features,  the  temples  were  all  beyond  the  average  propor- 
tion in  length.  Excepting  one  of  the  megaron-cellas  which 
had  a  single  division,  only  the  gigantic  temple  of  Apollo 
had  interior  colonnades. 

Temples  of  the  central  period.  The  fifth  century  saw  the 
victory  of  the  normal  Doric  arrangement  for  all  peristylar 
temples.  A  pronaos  and  an  opisthodomos  in  antis,  a  cella 
undivided  or  with  three  aisles,  were  everywhere  adopted. 
The  plans  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  the  great 
temple  at  Paestum  in  southern  Italy,  and  the  little  temple  at 
^Egina  off  the  coast  of  Attica,  all  three-aisled,  are  distin- 
guishable only  by  minor  details.  The  same  holds  even 
more  strongly  for  the  temples  with  a  single  nave,  such  as 
the  later  temples  at  Akragas  and  the  so-called  Theseum  at 
Athens.  The  great  temple  at  Paestum  is  well  enough  pre- 
served to  permit  a  reconstruction  of  substantially  all  its 
parts  (Fig.  28).  The  interior  colonnades,  as  in  other  con- 
temporary temples,  were  made  by  superposing  two  ranges 
of  small  columns.  The  lower  range  was  united  merely 
with  an  architrave,  and  the  columns  of  the  upper  range  con- 
tinued the  taper  of  those  below. 

Athens.  The  Athenian  architects  of  the  second  half  of 
the  century  began  a  series  of  unexampled  innovations 
which,  after  raising  the  Doric  temple  to  its  greatest  richness, 
ultimately  set  the  Ionic  in  its  place.  With  Pericles  as  the 
leader  of  the  democracy,  and  the  great  sculptor  Phidias  in 


FIG.  30 — ATHENS.      PLAN  OF  THE  ACROPOLIS.      (KAUPERT) 


(i)  Theater  of  Dionysus     ' 
(9)  Stoa  of  Eumenes 
(10)  Odeion  of  Herodes  Atticus 


(19)  Temple  of  Athena  Nike 

(20)  Propylaea 
(28)  Parthenon 


f39)  Old  Temple  of  Athena 
(40)  Erechtheum 


82          A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  r61e  of  a  minister  of  public  works,  the  most  cosmopolitan 
city  in  Greece  infused  new  life  into  the  temple  form  just 
as  it  was  stiffening  into  a  formula.  The  elements  intro- 
duced were  not  from  Ionia  only.  They  include  features 
directly  reminiscent  of  Egypt — the  fruit  perhaps  of  the 
Athenian  expedition  to  Egypt  in  454 — as  well  as  others 
essentially  new. 

The  Parthenon.  The  Parthenon  (Figs.  16  and  17),  which 
superseded  a  more  conventional  temple  projected  before 
the  Persian  wars,  was  designed  by  Iktinos  and  Kallikrates, 
and  erected  between  447  and  432.  It  had  an  exceptionally 
wide  cella  (Fig.  30  [28])  to  give  space  for  the  colossal  statue 
of  Athena  by  Phidias.  The  interior  colonnades  of  the  cella 
were  turned  across  behind  the  image,  making  the  first 
peristylar  hall  in  Greece.  In  the  rear  chamber  the  super- 
posed Doric  ranges  were  replaced  by  Ionic  columns,  the 
greater  relative  height  of  which  enabled  a  single  support 
to  reach  the  roof  without  too  great  diameter.  On  the  ex- 
terior the  Doric  order  was  retained,  with  prostyle  porticoes 
of  six  columns  for  pronaos  and  opisthodomos,  and  a  peri- 
style of  eight  by  seventeen  columns.  The  use  of  marble 
made  possible  a  ceiling  of  coffered  stone,  instead  of  wood, 
over  the  vestibules  and  outer  corridors,  and  a  richness  of 
sculptured  decoration  hitherto  unknown. 

Architectural  refinements.  A  subtle  upward  curvature  of 
the  stylobate,  early  employed  in  the  Heraion  at  Olympia 
and  the  temple  at  Corinth,  was  used  in  the  Parthenon  and 
in  the  smaller  temple  known  as  the  Theseum,  as  part  of 
an  elaborate  series  of  modifications  in  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  members.  The  lines  of  the  entablature  were  also 
curved  upward  in  the  center,  as  well  as  inward  in  plan. 
The  columns  were  inclined  backward  toward  the  walls  of 
the  cella,  those  at  the  corner  sloping  diagonally.  The 
walls  themselves  inclined,  in  sympathy  with  the  pyramidal 
effect  of  the  whole.  The  corner  columns  were,  moreover, 
slightly  thicker  than 'the  others,  giving  a  definite  end  to 
the  colonnade.  All  these  variations — although  very  slight, 
like  the  entasis — sufficed  to  recognize  in  the  most  delicate 
way  every  possibility  of  finer  organization,  and  to  give 
the  work  of  art  something  of  the  character  of  a  living  thing. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  83 

Temple  of  Athena  Nike.  In  the  later  temples  of  the 
Acropolis  the  Doric  order  was  abandoned  completely  for 
the  Ionic,  which  had  newly  become  familiar.  The  first 
of  these  was  the  little  temple  of  Athena  Nike,  the  so- 
called  "Temple  of  the  Wingless  Victory,"  built  about 
435  by  Kallikrates  on  the  southwest  bastion.  It  has  a 
shallow  cella  with  prostyle  porticoes  of  four  columns  at 
each  end  (Fig.  30  [19]).  Although  it  is  the  smallest  of 
all  Greek  temples,  its  magnificent  situation,  its  harmony 
of  proportion  with  the  substructure,  its  perfection  of  de- 
tail, enable  it  to  hold  its  own  worthily  with  its  great 
neighbors. 

The  Erechtheum.  Another  Ionic  temple,  dedicated  to 
Athena  and  Erechtheus  (Fig.  18),  was  built  at  intervals 
from  435  to  404  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  temple  north 
of  the  Parthenon.  It  was  irregular  in  plan,  corresponding 
to  the  variety  of  cults  which  it  sheltered  and  the  unevenness 
of  the  ground  on  which  it  stood  (Fig.  30  [40]).  It  had  a 
cella  with  a  prostyle  portico  of  six  columns  on  the  east, 
minor  porches  to  north  and  south,  and  a  wall  with  engaged 
columns  on  the  west.  In  the  famous  Porch  of  the  Maidens 
to  the  south,  the  sculptured  supports  show  a  masterly 
adaptation  to  their  architectural  functions.  The  six 
figures,  four  in  front,  stand  all  with  their  backs  to  the 
building.  They  rest  easily  on  one  foot,  with  the  supporting 
leg,  always  the  one  on  the  outside,  enveloped  in  vertical 
folds  of  drapery  which  serve  the  same  artistic  function  as 
the  flutes  of  a  column.  In  the  North  Porch  is  the  richest 
of  all  Ionic  capitals,  having  a  double  spiral,  and  a  carved 
necking  of  honeysuckle,  or  anthemion.  The  superb  north 
doorway  with  its  molded  architrave  enriched  by  carved 
rosettes  is  another  striking  feature.  The  columns  of  the 
north  and  west  rise  from  levels  different  from  the  features 
of  the  east  and  south.  The  north  portico,  moreover,  pro- 
jects beyond  the  corner  of  the  cella,  and  includes  a  door  to 
the  sacred  inclosure  west  of  the  building.  Although  the 
junctions  show  some  lack  of  facility,  the  very  attempt  to 
combine  a  variety  of  forms  in  a  building  for  complex  uses 
was  a  novelty.  The  features  evolved  in  the  course  of  the 
attempt,  such  as  the  portico  or  porch  used  independently 


84          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  main  facade,  became  favorite  devices  in  the  sub- 
sequent development  of  architecture. 

The  temple  at  Basses.  Beyond  the  borders  of  Attica, 
Iktinos  was  employed  about  420  to  design  the  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Bassas  in  the  Arcadian  mountains.  It  surpassed 
even  the  buildings  of  his  native  city  in  the  novelty  of  its 
arrangements.  Not  only  were  both  the  Doric  and  the 
Ionic  orders  used,  but  for  the  first  time  that  we  know  the 
rich  Corinthian  appeared  as  a  third.  The  Ionic  order  was 
used  for  the  interior  of  the  cella,  with  columns  the  full 
height  of  the  room,  as  it  had  been  used  in  the  treasury  of  the 
Parthenon.  A  change  from  free-standing  columns  to  en- 
gaged columns  in  the  interior  was  also  begun,  by  attaching 
the  columns  to  the  wall  by  short  cross  walls.  The  Ionic 
capitals  themselves  are  unlike  any  previously  seen  in  Greece. 
They  have  volutes  on  all  three  exposed  faces,  permitting  the 
colonnade  to  be  turned  across  the  cella  without  requiring 
a  special  corner  capital.  The  nearest  prototypes  for  the 
form  of  their  volutes  are  in  certain  Egyptian  scrolls.  Egyp- 
tian models  may  also  have  suggested  the  single  Corinthian 
capital,  which  crowns  a  column  at  the  end  of  the  cella 
under  the  same  entablature  with  the  Ionic  columns. 

Sculptured  decoration  in  Athenian  temple  design.  The 
fifth-century  Athenian  temples  also  set  new  precedents  in 
richness  of  sculptural  features  and  in  modes  of  introducing 
them.  Hitherto  decoration  by  figure  sculpture  had  scarcely 
been  employed,  in  Doric  temples,  except  in  the  triangular 
fields  of  the  two  pediments,  and  in  the  series  of  metopes  on 
the  ends.  The  characteristic  mode  of  decoration  for  Ionic 
buildings  had  been  by  continuous  bands  or  friezes  of 
figures,  running  around  the  external  wall  of  the  cella  or 
its  substructure.  Now,  in  the  design  of  the  Parthenon,  all 
the  metopes  of  the  external  Doric  order  were  filled  with 
sculpture,  and  a  continuous  Ionic  frieze  was  added  around 
the  cella  just  below  the  ceiling  of  the  peristyle.  In  the 
Ionic  temple  of  Athena  Nike  with  its  prostyle  arrangement, 
whereby  cella  and  portico  were  united  by  a  single  cornice, 
Kallikrates  did  not  confine  the  sculptured  frieze  to  the 
cella,  but  carried  it  along  above  the  architraves  of  the  two 
porticoes.  This  first  use  of  a  sculptured  frieze  in  the  en- 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  85 

tablature  of  the  Ionic  order,  immediately  followed  by  a 
similar  use  in  the  Erechtheum  and  in  the  interior  of  the 
temple  at  Bassae,  soon  influenced  all  current  practice. 

Fourth-century  temples.  The  revolutionary  designs  of  the 
Athenian  architects  did  not  produce  an  instant  or  complete 
reformation  in  the  temple  elsewhere.  The  temples  of  the 
West  remained  little  affected  by  them.  At  Segesta,  and 
in  the  great  temple  at  Paestum,  built  soon  after  430,  curva- 
tures and  inclinations  analogous  to  those  of  the  Parthenon 
occur,  but  the  Ionic  order  found  no  favor,  even  for  in- 
teriors. In  continental  Greece  the  universal  adoption  of 
marble  resulted  in  the  use  of  stone  ceilings  for  the  peristyle, 
and  of  general  proportions  similar  to  those  of  the  Attic 
buildings.  The  sculptor  Skopas,  in  the  temple  of  Athena 
Alea  at  Tegea,  followed  the  lead  of  Iktinos  by  employing 
both  the  Ionic  and  the  Corinthian  columns  as  well  as  the 
Doric.  The  principal  use  of  these,  however,  was  in  the 
new  circular  temples,  or  tholoi — at  Epidaurus,  Olympia,  and 
Delphi. 

Late  temples  in  Ionia.  The  great  temples  of  the  Ionian 
renaissance  naturally  reverted  to  the  early  national  types 
represented  by  the  temple  of  Hera  at  Samos  and  the  Arte- 
mision  at  Ephesus.  With  eight  and  sometimes  ten  columns 
on  the  front,  they  had  two  rows  along  the  sides  or  else  a 
width  of  corridor  which  would  have  sufficed  for  two  (Fig.  29 
[8]).  The  columns  were  aligned  with  the  antae  both  on  front 
and  sides,  making  possible  a  regularity  in  the  ceiling  beams 
which  had  never  been  attained  in  Doric  temples.  The 
curvature  of  the  stylobate  was  taken  over  from  Doric 
buildings  in  the  Ionic  temples  of  Priene  and  Pergamon; 
the  use  of  half  columns  of  Corinthian  order  for  the  interior 
of  the  cella  was  adopted  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Didyma. 
An  element  increasingly  used  was  the  podium  or  pedestal 
for  the  whole  structure,  with  base  and  crowning  moldings, 
which  tended  to  take  the  place  of  the  stylobate. 

Mystery  temples.  The  hall-temples  of  cults  which  included 
initiation  into  certain  mysteries  were  multiplied  chiefly  during 
the  late  period,  though  a  few  examples  have  come  down  from 
a  much  earlier  time.  For  some  of  these,  the  conventional 
megaron-cella  sufficed,  either  undivided  or  with  longitudinal 


86          A   HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

colonnades  as  at  Samothrace.  The  peristyle  could  also  be 
appropriated  to  mystic  uses  by  the  building  of  screen  walls 
between  the  columns  for  a  part  of  the  height,  as  in  one  of  the 
temples  at  Selinus.  From  this  it  was  but  a  step  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  Olympieum  at  Akragas,  in  which  these 
screens  were  carried  the  full  height,  and  the  cella  thus  extended 
to  the  outer  engaged  colonnade  (Fig.  26).  The  huge  size  of 
this  temple  and  the  consequent  desire  for  an  intermediate 
support,  furnished  by  colossal  male  figures  between  the 
columns,  may  have  been  responsible  for  this  complete  closing  of 
the  peristyle.  For  the  great  hall  of  mysteries  at  Eleusis,  the 
traditional  temple  scheme  was  already  abandoned  in  the  time 
of  Pisistratus  for  one  which  gave  a  greater  capacity  and  a 
view  of  the  ceremonies  from  all  sides.  A  square  room  divided 
by  seven  rows  of  columns  in  each  direction,  with  tiers  of  seats 
about  the  walls,  served  to  house  a  large  number  of  spectators, 
though  the  forest  of  columns  left  most  of  them  but  scant 
glimpses  of  the  central  space. 

Altars.  The  sacrificial  altars  before  the  great  temples,  at 
first  of  relatively  small  size,  became,  in  Hellenistic  times, 
monumental  constructions,  surpassing  the  temples  them- 
selves in  area  and  magnificence.  In  essence  they  comprised 
a  platform  for  the  sacrificants  and  a  raised  hearth  above  this 
for  the  burning  of  the  offering.  Especially  noteworthy  were 
the  altars  at  Parion,  over  six  hundred  feet  on  a  side,  at  Syra- 
cuse, almost  the  same  distance  in  length,  and  at  Pergamon, 
with  a  sculptured  podium  and  a  U-shaped  Ionic  colonnade 
surrounding  the  platform  of  sacrifice. 

Treasuries.  In  the  pan-Hellenic  religious  centers  the 
temple  cellas  could  not  hold  a  tithe  of  the  offerings  showered 
upon  the  gods,  and  the  practice  early  grew  up  of  erecting 
individual  treasuries  in  which  the  gifts  of  each  city  might  be 
deposited.  These  took  the  form  of  small  temples,  usually 
with  two  columns  in  antis,  although  occasionally  prostyle. 
Each  bore  the  stylistic  impress  of  its  city  and  of  its  time  of 
origin.  Ranged  on  their  terrace  at  Olympia,  or  picturesquely 
disposed  along  the  winding  sacred  way  at  Delphi  (Fig.  35), 
they  were  among  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  national 
sanctuaries. 

Temple   enclosures,   propyl&a.     Monumental  gateways,   or 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  87 

propylaea,  with  porticoes  inside  and  out,  gave  access  to  the 
temple  inclosures,  and  stoas  for  the  shelter  of  pilgrms  ran 
along  the  inner  face  of  the  walls.  A  fusion  of  these  elements, 
unprecedented  in  its  unified  complexity,  was  attempted  by 
Mnesicles  in  the  propylaea  of  the  Athenian  acropolis  (437- 
432).  Though  religious  conservatism  prevented  the  complete 
realization  of  his  design,  the  part  still  standing  shows  its 
monumental  qualities  (Fig.  30  [20]).  The  greater  temple 
precincts,  often  with  many  temples  and  altars,  with  groves 
of  olive  and  ilex,  with  a  forest  of  statues  and  ex-votos,  formed 
ensembles  of  grandiose  effect  (Fig.  35). 

Civil  buildings.  Special  buildings  for  civil  purposes  were 
evolved  relatively  late  in  Greece,  where  assemblage  in  the 
open  air  was  feasible,  and  where  the  temples  served  many 
civic  functions.  The  most  universal  of  the  forms  employed 
was  the  stoa,  a  long  narrow  hall  like  the  megaron  or  the 
temple  cella,  but,  unlike  the  cella,  having  an  open  colonnade 
in  place  of  one  of  the  side  walls.  In  the  varied  uses  of  the  stoa 
as  shelter,  market,  and  exchange,  subdivision  by  a  single 
range  of  columns  did  not  present  the  same  artistic  and  practical 
disadvantages  as  in  the  temple,  and  it  remained  the  most  usual 
interior  arrangement.  Stoas  with  a  triple  division,  or  in  two 
stories,  however,  were  not  uncommon.  Doric  columns 
carrying  stone  architraves  usually  formed  the  outer  colonnade ; 
Ionic  columns  taller  and  less  closely  spaced  supported  the 
wooden  beams  of  the  roof.  In  two-storied  stoas  the  Ionic 
order  was  placed  above  the  Doric,  each  having  its  full 
entablature. 

Agorae.  The  agora,  or  market-place,  originally  serving  po- 
litical functions  also,  was  an  open  place  of  no  fixed  form,  bor- 
dered on  one  or  more  sides  by  stoas.  It  was  frequently  placed 
in  the  angle  of  two  principal  streets,  which  passed  through  it 
along  the  sides.  The  several  stoas  were  thus  at  first  inde- 
pendent. Only  in  later  days,  in  Ionia,  was  a  closed  area  of 
regular  plan  with  continuous  surrounding  colonnades  adopted, 
following  the  Oriental  type  of  a  peristylar  court.  The  agoras 
at  Megalopolis,  at  Priene  (Fig.  36),  and  at  Magnesia  (Fig.  31) 
show  successive  steps  in  this  process  of  higher  organization. 
Frequent  adjuncts  to  the  agora  were  shops  at  the  back  of  the 
porticoes,  and  a  temple  or  fountain  in  the  central  space; 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  89 

near  it  were  the  bouleuterion  or  council-house  and  the  other 
civic  buildings.  Often  subsidiary  markets  for  the  sale  -  of 
special  classes  of  goods  supplemented  the  principal  agora. 

Council-houses.  The  bouleuterion,  like  so  many  other 
Greek  buildings,  was  in  origin  a  megaron.  In  the  one  at 
Olympia  the  older  portion  even  conserved  the  primitive  form 
of  house,  with  an  apsidal  end  and  a  single  longitudinal 
colonnade.  Later  examples,  such  as  the  Phokikon  at  Daulis, 
were  like  the  mature  cella  in  having  two  rows  of  columns. 
Banks  of  seats  were  added  between  them  and  the  lateral 
walls.  The  problem  was  essentially  similar  to  that  of  the 
mystery  temples  and  led  ultimately,  as  in  them,  to  abandon- 
ment of  a  longitudinal  scheme  and  adoption  of  a  concentric 
arrangement  of  seats  facing  a  speaker's  platform.  At  Priene, 
in  the  second  or  third  century  B.C.,  the  seats  paralleled  three 
walls  and  the  roof  was  carried  by  an  interior  peristyle — a 
solution  unified  and  technically  satisfactory.  At  Miletus  the 
seats  were  made  semicircular,  on  the  model  of  a  theater, 
though  the  building  itself  was  rectangular  and  the  interior 
supports  bore  no  relation  to  the  seating  plan.  A  monumental 
court  and  propylaea  were  added.  None  of  these  buildings 
accommodated  more  than  a  few  hundred  at  most.  A  special 
problem  was  presented  by  the  hall  of  the  Arcadians  at 
Megalopolis  where  several  thousand  were  to  be  housed.  The 
architect  adopted  a  series  of  concentric  colonnades  and  seats 
about  three  sides,  but  avoided  obstructing  the  view  as  badly 
as  in  the  hall  of  mysteries  at  Eleusis  by  placing  the  columns 
in  lines  radiating  from  the  central  point.  The  roof  was  of 
course  of  wood,  and  the  solution,  though  practically  satis- 
factory, was  neither  permanent  nor  monumental. 

Theaters.  The  Greek  theater  was  a  natural  growth,  corre- 
sponding to  the  growth  of  the  drama  from  the  primitive  cult 
of  Dionysus.  The  choral  songs  and  dances  from  which  the 
drama  took  its  departure  preserved  their  place  in  the  later 
development,  and  were  responsible  for  the  importance  of 
the  original  element  of  the  theater — the  orchestra,  or  circle 
of  the  dance,  in  the  center  of  which  stood  the  altar.  The 
other  ultimate  elements  were  the  scats  rising  in  concave  tiers, 
the  skene,  opposite  them,  containing  the  dressing-rooms  for 
the  participants,  and  the  proskenion,  a  platform  before  the 


go          A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

skene,  on  which  certain  of  the  actors,  or  all  of  them,  made  their 
appearance.  An  early  stage  of  development  may  be  surmised 
in  which  a  convenient  hillside  served  for  the  auditorium,  at 
first  without  any  architectural  features,  later  with  seats  of 
wood.  In  the  fifth  century,  coincident  with  the  dramatic 
reforms  of  ^Eschylus,  the  skene  was  introduced.  In  the 
time  of  Sophocles  it  still  remained  of  wood  with  walls  of 
painted  canvas.  Before  long,  however,  monumental  materials 
were  substituted,  and  the  elements  were  elaborated  into  the 
theater  of  the  fourth  century,  which  remained  much  the  same 


FIG.  32 — EPHESUS.     THEATER    DURING    THE    HELLENISTIC    PERIOD. 
(RESTORED  BY  FIECHTER) 


in  Hellenistic  days.  Even  then  the  components  were  but 
loosely  juxtaposed,  not  welded  into  a  single  unit.  Greek 
modes  of  design  were  too  naive  to  seek  the  union  of  parts 
having  forms  and  functions  so  distinct. 

A  typical  Hellenistic  theater.  The  theater  at  Ephesus 
(Fig.  32)  shows  the  form  which  became  customary  in  the  later 
Hellenistic  period.  The  orchestra  was  still  laid  out  so  as  to 
include  a  complete  circle,  although  the  circle  itself  was  no 
longer  marked  with  a  curbing,  as  in  earlier  examples.  Around 
it  were  the  stone  seats,  occupying  somewhat  more  than  a 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  91 

semicircle,  and  resting  directly  on  the  hillside.  They  were 
divided  concentrically  at  half  their  height  by  a  passage,  as 
well  as  radially  by  flights  of  steps,  and  were  stopped  at  the 
sides  by  oblique  walls.  Between  these  and  the  buildings  of 
the  stage  were  passages  for  the  entrance  of  the  spectators  and 
for  the  chorus  when  it  was  supposed  to  come  from  a  distance. 
Tangent  to  the  orchestra,  opposite  the  auditorium,  was  the 
proskenion,  about  ten  feet  high,  with  small  engaged  columns, 
three  doors  for  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  chorus,  and  the 
remaining  openings  closed  by  wooden  panels.  The  skene 
itself  was  a  long  narrow  building,  two  stories  high,  with  a 
series  of  large  openings  in  the  side  toward  the  proskenion, 
three  of  them  containing  doors.  The  large  openings,  which 
in  earlier  days  had  framed  somewhat  naturalistic  stage  settings, 
were  now  given  a  more  conventional  filling  of  slender  columns, 
the  ancestors  of  the  grouped  decorative  columns  of  the  Roman 
stage  backgrounds  (cf.  Fig.  47). 

Variety  in  theater  designs.  In  other  examples  there  was 
abundant  variety.  The  site  available  did  not  always  permit 
the  auditorium  to  be  regularly  geometrical  as  at  Ephesus; 
it  was  frequently  irregular  in  its  outer  boundary  and  some- 
times in  the  layout  of  the  seats  themselves.  The  conformation 
of  the  ground  often  permitted  subordinate  entrances  to  the 
intermediate  circular  passage.  Seats  of  honor  might  be 
provided  about  the  orchestra,  like  the  beautiful  marble  thrones 
of  the  theater  of  Dionysus  at  Athens.  A  stoa  in  which  people 
could  seek  shelter,  or  promenade,  might  also  be  added  some- 
where in  the  neighborhood  of  the  skene. 

Size  of  theaters.  In  accommodation  these  open-air  theaters 
far  exceeded  the  theaters  of  modern  times.  At  Athens  there 
was  room  for  30,000  spectators,  at  Megalopolis  for  44,000. 
Those  in  the  rear  rows  were  also  much  farther  from  the 
actors,  but,  in  compensation,  saw  them  from  a  lower  angle 
than  those  in  our  upper  galleries.  The  diameter  of  the 
auditorium  ranged  from  two  hundred  to  five  hundred  feet. 

Odeions.  Related  to  the  theater  both  in  purpose  and  in 
the  step-like  arrangement  of  the  auditorium  was  the  odeion, 
a  covered  building  for  musical  and  oratorical  contests.  The 
first  of  the  sort  was  the  one  built  by  Pericles  in  Athens.  It 
seems  to  have  had  a  conical  roof,  with  interior  supports.  In 


92          A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Graeco-Roman  times  buildings  for  such  purposes  became 
customary  in  cities  of  any  considerable  size.  The  smaller 
ones  were  rectangular,  with  curving  stepped  seats  like  a 
modern  lecture  or  recital  hall ;  the  larger  ones  were  essentially 
covered  Roman  theaters,  the  most  famous  being  the  odeion 
built  by  Herodes  Atticus  against  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  in 
the  second  century  after  Christ  (Fig.  30  [10]). 

Stadions.  The  athleticism  of  the  Greeks  did  not  fail  to  create 
its  share  of  their  monumental  architecture.  For  foot-races 
the  stadion  was  evolved,  taking  its  name  from  the  Greek 
furlong.  It  was  laid  out  where  the  topography  favored,  with 
seats  sometimes  in  a  single  bank,  but  preferably  in  two  long 
parallel  banks  close  together,  connected  by  a  semicircle. 
Where  necessary  the  seats  were  built  up  artificially,  either  by 
walls  or  by  mounds  of  earth,  as  at  Olympia.  Seats  of  stone 
or  marble  were  a  late  addition,  at  Athens  not  until  Roman 
times.  The  capacity  varied  from  twelve  thousand  to  fifty 
thousand.  Hippodromes  were  also  laid  out  on  a  similar  plan 
but  with  a  wide  turn.  Means  scarcely  sufficed  for  executing 
these  in  monumental  materials  during  Greek  times.  The 
division  in  the  center  of  the  course  remained  a  simple  bank 
of  earth,  the  starting  barriers  of  wood. 

Other  athletic  buildings.  The  gymnasium  and  the  palaestra 
served  for  general  exercise  and  preparation  for  the  great  games. 
Originally,  and  in  strictness,  the  palaestra  was  the  place  for 
boxing  and  wrestling,  but  the  two  terms  are  often  used  inter- 
changeably. In  primitive  days  a  simple  inclosure  sufficed; 
later  a  stoa  was  added  along  one  side;  then  others,  backed  by 
rooms.  The  arrangement  was  simplified  in  Hellenistic  times 
by  the  substitution  of  a  homogeneous  colonnaded  court,  as  at 
Olympia  and  Epidaurus.  The  side  of  the  court  facing  the 
south  was  usually  doubled  in  depth.  The  surrounding  rooms 
furnished  places  for  instruction,  or  for  the  assemblage  of 
friends  for  readings  or  conversation.  In  one  of  them  was  the 
bath,  with  a  simple  tank  or  trough.  Separate  bathing 
establishments  were  not  frequent  or  extensive  until  late 
Hellenistic  times,  when  a  luxurious  elaboration  ensued  which 
furnished  the  prototypes  for  the  great  Roman  therms. 

Domestic  architecture;  the  megaron  house.  The  private  house 
remained  of  secondary  importance  until  well  into  the  central 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


93 


period,  as  a  result  of  the  almost  exclusively  political  and 
public  life  of  the  men.  It  seems  normally  to  have  included  a 
modest  hall,  the  descendant  of  the  megaron,  and  a  court  closed 
toward  the  street,  besides  minor  rooms.  The  houses  of  Priene 
in  the  fourth  century  still  show  an  ever-recurring  type  of 
megaron-house,  with  a  portico  in  antis  before  the  hall,  dominat- 
ing the  court  as  in  Mycenaean  times  (Fig.  33).  The  entrance 


T    R  E  t 


FIG.  33 — PRIENE.    "HOUSE  xxxn".     (WIEGAND) 

from  the  street  was  at  one  side,  opening  into  a  narrow  corridor 
continued  along  the  side  of  the  court  by  a  colonnade.  Most 
of  the  rooms,  however,  could  only  be  reached  by  passing 
through  the  open  court. 

The  house  with  a  peristylar  court.  In  the  third  century  this 
type  began  to  be  superseded  by  one  in  which  the  court  had  a 
continuous  peristyle,  the  Oriental  arrangement.  The  megaron- 
hall  was  given  up  for  a  broad  hall  lying  along  one  side,  as  is 
seen  especially  at  Delos  (Fig.  34).  The  peristyle  was  the 
characteristic  central  feature  of  the  kingly  residences  of  the 
Hellenistic  period  like  those  of  the  Acropolis  at  Pergamon. 
All  these  dwellings  alike  turned  a  simple  wall  to  the  exterior, 
with  few  windows  or  none,  and  rarely  a  portico  over  the  door. 
A  second  story  over  some  portions  was  not  uncommon.  Wall 


94 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


painting  is  first  mentioned  in  the  time  of  Alcibiades,  who  is 
said  to  have  confined  a  painter  in  his  house  until  he  decorated 
the  walls.  Later  it  became  usual  for  the  decoration  of  the 
interior,  as  at  Pompeii  in  the  Graeco-Roman  period. 

Funerary  architecture.  Interment  of  the  dead  was  the  usual 
custom  in  Greece,  although  incineration  was  not  unknown. 
The  burial  was  for  the  most  part  in  cemeteries  on  the  plain 
outside  the  city  gates.  Democratic  feeling  demanded  sim- 
plicity in  the  marking  of  the  grave,  so  that,  except  for  those 


FIG.   34 — DELOS.      HOUSE  OF  THE  TRIDENT.      (P.    PARIS) 

of  a  few  traditional  heroes,  the  most  elaborate  monuments  are 
to  be  found  outside  of  Greece  proper,  in  the  late  period  when 
foreigners  appreciated  and  employed  Greek  architects.  At 
Athens  an  unpretentious  slab,  or  stele,  was  the  favorite  type, 
carved  with  honeysuckle  or  acanthus  ornament,  and  often 
decorated  with  symbolic  sculptured  reliefs.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century  the  stone  sarcophagus,  already  used  in 
the  Orient,  appeared  in  Greece.  The  most  famous  examples 
are  those  of  the  group  for  the  Hellenized  rulers  of  Sidon,  in 
which  the  details  of  the  house  or  temple  are  imitated,  as  a 
setting  for  relief  sculpture.  The  temple  form  was  also 
employed  at  a  larger  scale  for  actual  sepulchral  chambers  or 
chapels  to  the  memory  of  a  hero.  These  multiplied,  from  the 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE  95 

end  of  the  fifth  century,  in  Asia  Minor,  culminating  about  350 
in  the  gigantic  monument  of  the  Carian  King  Mausolus. 
This  had  a  peristylar  cella  supported  on  a  lofty  podium,  or 
basement,  and  crowned  by  a  pyramid  of  twenty-four  steps 
bearing  a  quadriga,  or  four-horse  chariot.  Pliny  gives  the 
total  height  as  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  and  the  perimeter 
as  four  hundred  and  forty.  Specially  famous  was  the  richness 
of  its  sculptured  decoration,  with  no  less  than  three  friezes  in 
relief,  besides  many  free  standing  figures.  The  arrangement 
of  a  peristyle  on  a  podium,  made  notable  by  this  building, 
became  a  typical  form  for  later  monuments. 

Commemorative  monuments.  Similar  forms  were  used  in 
commemorative  monuments,  as  in  the  monument  of  Lysicrates 
at  Athens,  erected  in  335~334(Fig.  25).  Here  a  circular  super- 
structure was  placed  for  the  first  time  over  a  square  base. 
The  larger  votive  offerings  at  the  national  sanctuaries  em- 
braced monuments  of  a  variety  of  forms.  A  column  was 
often  used  as  the  support  for  a  figure,  and  monumental  settings 
were  created  for  groups  of  statues  in  hemicycles  or  exedrcB. 
All  these  are  seen  in  rich  array  at  Delphi  (Fig.  35). 

Ensembles.  The  pan-Hellenic  centers  such  as  Delphi 
(Fig.  35),  Olympia,  and  Delos  included  not  merely  religious 
buildings.  Like  the  cities,  they  show  Greek  architecture  in 
its  ensemble.  At  Delphi  the  theater  and  the  stadion  were 
adjuncts  of  the  sacred  inclosure  of  Apollo;  at  Olympia  a  vast 
complex  of  athletic  buildings  grew  up,  with  a  council-house  for 
the  officials,  lodgings  for  distinguished  guests,  fountains, 
stoas,  and  later  even  private  residences.  Delos  was  a  port 
as  well  as  a  sanctuary,  and  had,  besides  its'  temples,  its  ware- 
houses, commercial  clubs,  and  exchanges.  On  such  ancient 
and  sanctified  ground — above  all  at  a  site  like  Delphi,  which 
owed  its  choice  to  a  mountain  fissure — no  great  formality  of 
arrangement  could  be  expected.  Great  skill  was  shown, 
however,  in  adapting  new  buildings  to  the  irregular  disposition 
of  the  old,  and  there  was  a  responsiveness  to  the  topography 
which  resulted  in  great  picturesqueness. 

The  cities.  The  same  qualities  distinguish  the  older  cities, 
where  the  sites  were  chosen  for  military  strength,  and  changes 
were  made  difficult  by  inherited  restrictions.  These  cities 
were  the  work  of  time;  their  plans  were  the  image  of  their 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


97 


history.  Although  their  domestic  quarters  remained  poorly 
and  closely  built,  the  centers  of  civic  life  were  enriched  until 
they  rivaled  or  surpassed  the  national  places  of  pilgrimage. 
This  was  true  above  all  at  Athens,  where  the  Acropolis  gave 
an  unrivaled  setting  to  a  group  of  superb  works,  rich  in 


Citadel 
Temple  of  Athena 


Theater 

Upper  Gymnasium 


Agora 
Lower  Gymnasium  Stadium 

FIG.  36 — PRIENE.     BIRD'S-EYE  VIEW.     (RESTORED  BY  ZIPPELIUS) 

material,  unique  in  perfection  of  workmanship  and  subtlety 
of  form.  The  approach  was  from  the  west,  the  rock  rising 
steeply  on  the  other  sides,  with  the  theaters  clinging  to  its 
southern  flank  (Fig.  30).  In  classic  times  a  winding  road  led 
up,  past  the  bastion  of  Athena  Nike",  to  the  Propylasa.  Passing 
its  porticoes  and  its  central  wall  with  the  five  huge  gates,  one 
came  out  on  the  summit  of  the  rock,  before  the  colossal  statue 
of  Athena  Promachos.  To  the  right  was  the  Parthenon;  to 
the  left,  differently  turned  to  the  light,  the  Erechtheum — 
their  simplicity  and  richness  serving  as  mutual  foils.  Winding 


98          A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

between  them  was  the  processional  roadway,  decked  with 
hundreds  of  statues  and  offerings  of  the  highest  artistic  merit. 

Town  planning.  The  later  cities  show  the  influence  of  the 
Greek  tendency  to  rationalize  all  things,  to  reduce  them  to 
universal  and  geometrical  types.  After  the  success  of  Hippo- 
damus  with  the  regular  plan  of  the  Piraeus,  he  was  employed 
at  Thurii  and  Rhodes.  Rectangular  plans,  at  least  for  the 
principal  streets,  were  adopted  in  most  Hellenistic  cities. 
Sometimes  there  were  two  main  intersecting  arteries,  some- 
times several  in  each  direction.  No  general  rectangular 
outline  of  the  whole  city  seems  to  have  been  sought.  Though 
Aristotle  notes  that  Hippodamus  made  provision  for  the 
proper  grouping  of  dwelling-houses,  it  seems  that  this 
consideration  remained  subordinate,  in  Greek  cities,  to  the 
spectacular  grouping  of  public  buildings.  In  the  application 
of  the  newly  discovered  formulas  the  architects  were  not 
always  scrupulous  in  regarding  topographical  conditions. 
At  Priene  (Fig.  36)  the  rectangular  street  plan  was  forcibly 
imposed  on  a  steep  hillside  site,  where  the  transverse  streets 
became  veritable  stairways.  Well  preserved  and  conscien- 
tiously excavated,  however,  it  gives  us  our  best  evidence  of 
the  aspect  of  a  late  Greek  city,  distantly  suggesting  the  lost 
magnificence  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria. 

Like  the  Greek  city-state,  Greek  architecture  rested  on  the 
synthesis  of  a  few  elements  only.  Animated  first  by  a  simple 
adaptation  to  nature,  later  by  self-confident  reason,  it  sought 
and  attained  supreme  clarity  of  expression  within  the  restricted 
field  which  modest  needs  had  suggested, 

PERIODS  OF   GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 

MagnaGrada  and  ^  an 

Sicily 

I.    PRIMITIVE   PERIOD,   about    1100-776   B.C. 
II.   ARCHAIC   PERIOD,   about   776-479   B.C. 


Earliest  peristylar 
temple  at  Seli- 
nus,  c.  575. 


Temple  of   Hera  at 
Olympia,  eighth 
century. 
Temple  at   Corinth, 

before  600. 

Athens  under  Pisisira- 
tus. 


Predominance  of  Ionia, 

to  c.  550. 
Temple  of   Hera  at 

Samos,  c.  600. 
Older  temple  of  Ar- 
temis at   Ephe- 
sus,  c.  560. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


99 


Magna  Gratia  and 
Sicily 

II.   ARCHAIC 

"Basilica"    at   Pass- 
turn,  c.  560. 

Predominance  of  western 
colonies,  c.  550-480. 
Great      temple      of 
Apollo   at    Seli- 
nus, begun  after 
540. 

Canonical  temples  at 
Selinus,  c.  500- 
480. 
Carthaginian  war,  480. 


Greece  proper 


Ionia  and  Asia 


PERIOD,  776-479  B.C. — Continued 


Persian  conquest  of  lo- 


Temple  of  Olympian 

Zeus    begun,    c.  nia,  546. 

530. 

Earlier  Hall  of  Mys- 
teries at  Eleusis. 

Earlier  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Del- 
phi, c.  530-514. 

Persian  wars,  awaken- 
ing   of   continental 
Greece,  400-470. 
Older   Parthenon  at 
Athens,  c.  490- 
480. 

Temple  of  Aphaia  at 
JEgina,  c.  490- 
480. 


in.  CENTRAL  PERIOD,  about  479-330  B.C. 


Prosperity    in     Sicily, 

480-465. 

Temple  of  Olympian 
Zeus    at    Akra- 
gas,  after  480. 
Temple  of  Apollo  at 
Selinus     com- 
pleted. 

Civil  war  and  war  with 
Steels,    465-444. 


Renewed   prosperity   in 

Sicily,  c.  444-400. 
Great  temple  at  Paes- 

tum,  c.  430. 
Temple  at  Segesta,  c. 

430-420. 
Temple   of   Concord 

at  Akragas. 


National  Unity,  c.  470- 

460. 

Embellishment  of  Olym- 
pia,  Delphi,  and 
Delos. 

Temple    of   Zeus   at 
Olympia,  c.  468- 
56. 
Trophy  of  Plataea  at 

Delphi. 

Athenian       supremacy, 
age  of  Pericles,  c. 
461-430. 
The  Parthenon,  447- 

432. 
The  Propylaea,  437- 

432. 
Temple    of    Athena 

Nike\  c.  435. 
"Theseum,"  c.  430. 
Later  Hall  of  Mys- 
teries at  Eleusis. 
Laying    out    of    the 
Piraeus. 


too        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


Magna  Gratia  and  Q 

Sicily 
in.  CENTRAL  PERIOD,  about  479-330  B.C. — Continued 

Peloponnesian  war;  po- 
litical   downfall    of 
Athens,  431-404. 
The  Erechtheum,  c. 


Fall  of  western  Sicily  be- 
fore Carthage,  409- 
406. 


Temple  of  Castor  and 
Pollux  at  Ak- 
ragas,  after  338. 


435-404. 

Spread  of  Athenian  in- 
fluence. 
Temple  of  Apollo  at 

Bassae,  c.  420. 
Temple    of     Athena 
Alea  at  Tegea,  c. 

39°- 

Temple,  tholos,  and 
theater  at  Epi- 
daurus,  c.  350. 

Rebuilding  of  Man- 
tinea;  building  of 
Megalopolis  and 
Messene,  370  ff. 
Macedonian  conquest  of 
Greece,  357~338. 

Philippeion  at  Olym- 
pia,  c.  336. 


Ionian  renaissance, 

from  c.  350. 
Mausoleum  at  Hali- 
carnassus,    after 

353- 

Later  temple  of  Ar- 
temis at  Ephe- 
sus,  356-334- 
Temple  of  Athena  at 
Priene,  dedicat- 
ed 334. 

Conquest  of  the  Persian 
Empire  by  Alex- 
ander, 334-330- 


IV.   HELLENISTIC   PERIOD,   about   330-146   B.C. 


Altar   of    Hieron    at 
Syracuse,     276- 

215- 

Roman  conquest  of  Mag- 
na  Grcecia  by  272, 
of  Sicily  by  241. 
Temple  of  Asklepios 
at  Akragas,  be- 
fore 210. 
Temple  "B"  at  Seli- 


A  dministration    of  Ly- 
curgus   at   Athens, 
338-322. 
Theater    lined    with 

stone. 

Stadion  built,  c.  330. 
Arsenal  of  Philon,  c. 

330- 

Portico     of     Philon, 

Eleusis,  311. 
Adornment  of  Athens  by 

Asiatic  rulers. 
Temple  of  Olympian 
Zeus      rebegun, 
174. 

Stoa  of  Attalos,  be- 
tween I 59  and 
138. 

Destruction    of   Corinth 
by  the  Romans,  146. 


Spread  of  Greek  in- 
fluence. 

Alexandria  founded, 
332. 


Antioch  founded, 301. 
Ephesus     refounded, 

290. 
Pergamon,  flourished 

esp.    241-138. 
Palace  of  Eumenes, 

I97-I59- 

Altar  of  Zeus,  c.  1 80. 

Council-house  at  Pri- 
ene, c.  200. 

Bouleuterion  at  Mile- 
tus, between  175 
and  164. 


GREEK  ARCHITECTURE 


101 


Magna  Grtzcia  and  „ 

Sicily  Greece  proper 

v.  GR^CO-ROMAN  PERIOD,  after  about  146  B.C. 


Ionia  and  Asia 


Corinthian- Doric 
temple  at  Paestum, 
second  century 

B.C. 


''Tower  of  the 
Winds"  at  Ath- 
ens, first  cen- 
tury B.C. 

Adornment    of    Athens 
by  Roman  emperors 
and  citizens. 
Arch  of  Hadrian,  c. 

135  A.D. 

Buildings  of  Herodes 
Atticus:  Seats 
of  Stadion,  c. 
140  A.D.,  Odeion, 
c.  160. 

Exedra  of  Herodes 
at  Olympia,  156 

A.D. 


Roman  province  of  Asia 
organized,  133  B.C. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

W.  J.  Anderson  and  R.  P.  Spiers 's  The  Architecture  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  2d  ed.,  1907,  gives  a  consecutive  historical  account;  A.  Mar- 
quand's  Greek  Architecture,  1909,  a  technical  analysis.  More  de- 
tailed and  authoritative,  with  full  bibliographical  references,  is 
J.  Dunn's  Baukunst  der  Gricchcn,  3d  ed.,  1910  (Ilandbuch  dcr  Archi- 
tectur,  pt.  II,  vol.  i).  Perrot  and  Chipiez's  Histoire  de  I'art  dans 
Vanliquite,  vol.  8,  1903,  which  includes  the  archaic  architecture  of 
Greece,  with  illuminating  restorations.  R.  Koldewey  and  O.  Puch- 
stein's  Die  griechischen  Tcmpel  wn  Unteritalien  und  Sicilien,  2  vols., 
1899,  remains  the  final  authority  for  the  temples  of  the  West.  H. 
d'Espouy's  Monuments  antiques,  vol.  i,  1910,  and  Fragments  d' archi- 
tecture antique,  vol.  i,  1896,  pis.  1-25,  vol.  2,  1905,  pis.  1-30,  contain 
a  choice  of  the  superbly  presented  restorations  of  Greek  architecture 
made  by  pensioners  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome,  ensembles  and 
details,  respectively.  Many  of  these  drawings,  however,  involve  a 
large  measure  of  conjecture  and  embody  architectural  theories  now 
abandoned.  F.  Noack's  Die  Baukunst  des  Altertums,  1910,  includes 
very  fine  photographs  of  the  Greek  monuments,  with  brief  text 
embodying  the  results  of  the  latest  researches.  A  topographical 


102         A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

treatment  is  Pausanias's  Description  of  Greece,  translated  with  a  com- 
mentary by  J.  G.  Frazer,  6  vols..  1898,  reprinted  1913.  Detailed 
lists  of  works  covering  individual  sites  and  regions  are  given  in 
K.  Sittl's  Archaologie  der  Kunst,  1895  (Handbuch  der  klassischen 
Alter tums-Wissenschaft,  vol.  6).  Among  studies  of  special  topics 
may  be  noted  W.  H.  Goodyear 's  Greek  Refinements,  1912;  G.  Le- 
roux's  Les  origines  de  I' edifice  hypostyle  en  Grece,  etc.,  1913;  B.  C. 
Rider's  The  Greek  House:  Its  History  and  Development,  1916;  and 
E.  .R.  Fiechter's  Die  baugeschichtliche  Entwicklung  des  antiken 
Theaters,  1914.  On  the  planning  of  cities,  see  F.  Haverfield's 
Ancient  Town  Planning,  1913,  chapters  3  and  4. 


CHAPTER  V 
ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 

Between  Greek  architecture  and  Roman  architecture  there 
is  no  such  sharp  distinction  as  between  the  various  preclassical 
styles,  which  developed  for  the  most  part  independently  in 
regions  relatively  little  in  contact  with  one  another.  From  the 
very  beginning  of  Greek  civilization  Italy  fell  within  the  sphere 
of  its  influence,  which  was  too  potent  to  permit  another 
independent  beginning.  The  character  of  the  Italian  peoples, 
moreover,  especially  that  of  the  Romans,  who  became 
dominant,  was  not  such  as  to  promise  much  initiative  in  the 
field  of  the  arts.  It  was  primarily  political,  war-like,  common- 
sense,  practical — better  adapted  to  receive  than  to  create  in 
matters  aesthetic,  though  capable  of  remarkable  developments 
in  the  science  of  planning  and  construction.  At  first  Spartanly 
ascetic,  the  Romans  became,  as  conquerors  of  the  world,  rich 
and  luxurious,  superposing  on  the  admirable  organization  of 
their  material  life  a  culture  derived  from  Greece  and  from 
the  Orient. 

Relation  to  Greek  forms.  As  they  came  in  direct  contact  with 
the  Greeks,  by  the  conquest  first  of  Southern  Italy  and 
Sicily,  then  of  Greece  and  western  Asia,  the  Romans  realized 
the  superior  advancement  of  Greek  architecture,  as  of  Greek 
literature  and  sculpture,  and  sought  to  adapt  its  forms  to 
their  own  monuments.  In  this  adaptation  the  original 
structural  significance  tended  to  be  lost,  as  in  the  later  and 
more  sophisticated  days  of  Greece  itself.  Columns  and  en- 
tablatures were  used  as  decorative  adjuncts  to  a  wall  or  to 
an  arch,  where  they  had  no  structural  functions,  but  where 
they  served  both  to  give  visible  expression  to  the  classical 
cultivation  of  their  builders  and  to  make  a  majestic  and 
rhythmical  subdivision  of  surface.  First  accepting  the  forms 


A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  columnar  orders  as  they  found  them  in  Hellenistic 
Greece,  the  Romans  proceeded  to  enrich  them  still  further  in 
ornamentation  and  in  scale.  The  arch  received  a  formal 
accentuation  with  moldings,  to  harmonize  with  the  other 
members  of  the  system. 

Importance  of  types  of  buildings.  Among  the  Romans,  how- 
ever, it  was  not  so  much  the  individual  forms  of  detail  which 
were  significant  as  the  many  functional  types  developed  in 
response  to  the  varied  needs  of  their  more  complex  civiliza- 
tion, and  in  accordance  with  a  logical  analysis  of  its  problems. 
First  came  an  extraordinary  expansion  of  engineering  works, 
civil  and  military — roads,  bridges,  drains,  aqueducts,  harbor- 
works,  fortifications — frankly  adapted  to  their  utilitarian 
functions,  yet  artistically  satisfactory  in  expression  of  struct- 
ure, in  broad  handling  of  materials,  in  proportion.  In  the 
train  of  an  active  political  and  commercial  life  came  more 
extended  and  magnificent  solutions  of  the  problems  of  the 
assembly-place  and  the  market — the  forum  and  the  basilica. 
For  military  and  monarchical  glorification  the  monumental 
types  already  employed  by  the  Greeks  were  seized  on  and 
magnified,  and  a  new  type,  the  commemorative  arch,  was 
added  to  them.  To  provide  an  architectural  setting  for 
favorite  amusements — comedy,  gladiatorial  combats,  races — 
the  Greek  form  of  auditorium  received  diverse  applications  in 
theaters,  amphitheaters,  circuses,  often  built  regardless  of 
expense,  whether  the  topography  favored  or  no.  To  minister 
to  increasing  wealth,  domestic  architecture  abandoned  its 
early  republican  austerity  for  an  Oriental  luxury  and  splendor, 
culminating  in  the  palaces  and  villas  of  the  emperors.  Their 
counterpart  for  the  masses  lay  in  the  public  bathing-estab- 
lishments or  thermae,  in  which  every  form  of  refreshment  and 
recreation  was  made  accessible  to  thousands. 

Construction.  In  construction  the  Romans  adapted  their 
methods  with  great  ingenuity  and  skill  to  operations  on  a 
large  scale  and  to  the  problem  of  placing  great  numbers  under 
cover  from  the  weather.  Taking  up  the  arch  and  vault  in  a 
condition  still  rudimentary  and  cumbersome,  they  followed 
out  its  form  through  the  elementary  geometric  possibilities 
and  combinations,  at  the  same  time  freeing  themselves  from 
bondage  to  the  difficulties  of  cut-stone  work.  Building  in 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  105 

concrete  enabled  them  to  extend  their  undertakings  and  to 
deploy  upon  the  surfaces  of  walls  rich  materials  which  could 
never  have  been  obtained  in  sufficient  quantity  for  con- 
structive uses.  It  also  permitted  them  to  vault  great  spans 
without  interior  supports,  securing  a  new  range  of  interior 
spatial  effects,  specifically  Roman. 

Planning.  In  disposing  the  numerous  units  which  manifold 
requirements  called  into  being,  the  Romans  progressed  from  a 
naive  irregularity,  like  that  of  the  early  Greeks,  through  pro- 
gressively higher  degrees  of  organization.  Ultimately  they 
far  surpassed  in  this  respect  the  Hellenistic  Greeks  who  were 
their  teachers.  The  functions  of  different  rooms  were 
specialized,  their  sequence  carefully  considered  both  from  the 
practical  standpoint  and  from  the  standpoint  of  spatial 
diversity  and  climax.  Not  content  with  establishing  formal 
symmetry  on  a  single  axis,  the  architects  introduced  trans- 
verse axes  and  a  variety  of  minor  axial  lines  parallel  to  both 
the  major  ones,  producing  a  highly  complex  unity  of  subor- 
dinated parts,  with  the  greatest  variety  of  effect.  They  ac- 
complished this  not  merely  on  level  ground,  but  also  on  the 
most  irregular  sites,  making  a  merit  of  difficult  topographic 
conditions  or  artfully  concealing  the  irregularities  which  re- 
sulted from  them. 

Universality.  Roman  architecture  became,  like  the  Roman 
Empire,  something  universal.  Race  and  climate  were  not 
greatly  determining,  for  these  were  diverse,  yet  the  official 
art,  in  spite  of  minor  differences  conditioned  by  local  traditions 
and  building  materials,  was  surprisingly  uniform.  Itself 
largely  adopted  from  the  Greeks,  it  was  imposed  on  other  sub- 
ject peoples,  and  practised  by  artists  of  many  racial  stocks, 
who  themselves  contributed  to  its  general  development. 
Forms  much  the  same  were  repeated,  without  sense  of  incon- 
gruity, in  the  sands  of  Africa,  fhe  foothills  of  the  Alps,  the 
forests  of  Germany.  In  this,  as  in  so  many  other  points, 
Roman  architecture  was  like  modern  architecture — material 
and  urbane,  frequently  lacking  in  delicacy  and  imagination  in 
detail,  while  preoccupied  with  larger  questions  of  planning, 
construction,  and  mass. 

Periods  of  development.  In  the  development  of  Roman  ar- 
chitecture three  periods  may  be  distinguished,  in  which,  side 


io6 


A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


by  side  with  native  developments,  Greek  influence  made  itself 
felt  in  three  different  ways.  Until  about  300  B.C.  the  Romans 
shared  with  the  Etruscans  a  diluted  Hellenism  mingled  with 
Italic  elements.  From  then  till  near  the  end  of  the  republic, 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  they  were  absorbing  from 
the  western  Greek  colonies  and  from  Greece  itself  the  grammar 


FIG.   37 — AN    ETRUSCAN   TEMPLE.       (RESTORED   BY   HULSEN) 

of  the  orders,  and  struggling  with  the  new  problem  of  the 
arch.  From  the  establishment  of  the  empire  to  its  fall  they 
drew  more  and  more  on  the  Orientalized  Hellenism  of  Asia, 
while  making  their  own  most  important  contributions. 

Earliest  monuments  to  300  B.C.  The  character  of  the  earliest 
monuments  of  Rome  must  be  deduced  principally  from  con- 
temporary Etruscan  works,  which  are  known  traditionally  to 
have  furnished  their  prototypes.  The  principal  types  are 
fortification  walls  with  polygonal  or  ashlar  masonry,  accord- 
ing to  the  material  available;  gates,  drains,  and  bridges,  with 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  107 

simple  arches  between  generous  abutments,  as  in  contemporary 
Greece;  temples  with  columnar  porticoes  and  lintels  of  wood 
(Fig.  37) ;  houses  and  tombs  of  a  variety  of  native  forms. 

The  house.  The  most  individual  and  most  influential  of 
these  types  was  the  dwelling,  the  ancestor  of  the  Roman 
house  of  classic  times.  After  the  seventh  century  there  are 
but  few  vestiges  of  houses  of  a  northern  character,  similar  to 
the  primitive  forerunners  of  the  megaron  in  Greece.  The 
characteristic  form  was  one  distinct  from  these,  seemingly  of 
Oriental  origin — the  house  with  an  atrium,  having  a  central 
opening  in  the  roof  (cf.  Fig.  54  [A]).  The  temple,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  strongly  influenced  from  Greece  in  at  least  two  of 
its  three  forms.  The  first  of  these,  the  circular  temple,  has 
evident  traditional  relations  with  the  circular  hut,  although  it 
later  received  a  peristyle  in  the  manner  of  Greek  examples. 
The  second  form,  with  a  single  rectangular  cella,  reproduced 
the  typical  Greek  arrangement  with  few  changes:  the  portico 
in  front  was  made  deeper  and  the  colonnade  was  frequently 
omitted  from  the  sides  and  always  from  the  rear.  The  third 
form,  with  three  parallel  cellas  (Fig.  37),  may  be  looked  on  less 
as  a  new  creation  than  an  adaptation  of  the  Greek  scheme  to 
the  exigencies  of  a  new  cult.  To  constitute  it,  it  sufficed  to 
place  prostyle  cellas  side  by  side,  and  to  give  their  porticoes 
somewhat  more  depth. 

Arched  construction.  The  arches  and  vaulted  drains,  such 
as  the  gateways  at  Perugia  (Fig.  38),  and  the  Cloaca  Maxima 
in  Rome — formerly  thought  to  descend  from  the  legendary 
Roman  kings  and  to  antedate  Greek  examples  of  the  arch — 
are  now  placed  in  the  fourth  century  at  earliest.  They  repre- 
sent no  constructive  advance  on  the  Greek  arches,  but  show 
an  effort  to  give  architectural  expression  to  the  functions  of 
the  parts  by  a  decorative  emphasis  on  the  keystone  and 
springing  stones,  or  by  projecting  members  below  the  spring- 
ing and  around  the  voussoirs — the  impost  and  label  molding. 

Columnar  system.  The  architectural  forms  of  the  columnar 
system  reflected  those  of  Greece,  all  three  orders  finding  crude 
counterparts.  Most  important  was  the  derivative  of  the 
Doric,  which  had  always  remained  dominant  in  western 
Greece.  It  recurs  in  both  of  its  later  Greek  forms:  with  the 
profile  of  the  echinus  reduced  to  a  straight  line  and  with  it 


108        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

rounded  into  a  quadrant ;  without  a  base  and  with  a  molded 
base  simplified  from  the  Ionic  order.  It  was  the  latter  of 
these  two  forms,  with  rounded  echinus  and  bases,  which  came 
to  be  regarded  as  specifically  Tuscan,  though  Vitruvius,  writ- 
ing in  the  time  of  Augustus,  recognized  that  it  was  but  a 
variety  of  the  Doric.  The  triglyph  frieze  was  sometimes  cop- 


FIG.  38 — PERUGIA.    "ARCH  OF  AUGUSTUS" 

ied,  though  more  usually  the  order  had  no  frieze.  Instead 
there  were  widely  projecting  eaves  formed  by  the  wooden 
beams  and  rafters,  which,  like  the  architraves  themselves,  were 
often  cased  in  richly  decorated  terra-cotta  plates  (Fig.  37). 
A  steep  gable  imitated  the  pediment,  sometimes  with  figure 
sculpture. 

Republican  developments,  to  about  50  B.C.  Greek  influence. 
In  the  later  and  more  powerful  days  of  the  republic,  con- 
structive and  formal  developments  went  on  simultaneously. 
In  the  first  aqueduct,  built  by  Appius  Claudius  in  312  B.C., 
in  the  bridge  of  ^mih'us  across  the  Tiber,  179-142  B.C.,  a 
series  of  arches  was  built  side  by  side,  their  thrusts  balancing 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  109 

on  the  supporting  piers.  The  revival  of  this  principle,  applied 
long  before  in  the  store-chambers  of  the  Ramesseum  at 
Thebes  and  in  the  great  substructure  at  Babylon,  was  to 
prove  of  uncommon  fruitfulness  in  later  Roman  architecture. 
Meanwhile  Greek  monuments  were  becoming  directly  ac- 
cessible to  the  Romans.  Magna  Grascia  was  conquered  by 
272  B.C.,  Sicily  by  241;  Greece  was  taken  under  Roman 
protectorate  in  196;  Asia  Minor  became  a  province  in  133. 
The  spoils  of  Syracuse  in  212,  of  Tarentum  in  209,  of  conti- 
nental Greece  in  196  and  167,  and  above  all  in  146,  after  the 
destruction  of  Corinth,  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Romans  to  the 
riches  of  Hellenic  art  and  awakened  a  desire  for  imitation. 
Greek  captives,  and  other  Greek  artists  attracted  by  wealth 
and  opportunity,  furnished  the  requisite  knowledge  and  skill. 
By  the  middle  of  the  second  century  B.C.  most  of  the  archi- 
tects active  in  Rome  were  Greeks. 

Forms  of  detail.  Their  influence  soon  made  itself  visible 
in  more  authentic  forms  of  detail  and  in  a  more  sophisticated 
application  of  the  orders  generally.  As  early  as  250  B.C. 
Greek  details,  individually  correct,  and  effective  in  spite  of 
their  uncanonical  combinations,  appear  in  the  sarcophagus  of 
Scipio  Barbatus.  By  the  first  century  B.C.  the  use  of  con- 
ventional detail  was  universal,  the  forms  of  the  orders  were 
naturalized,  so  that  conformity  with  Greek  standards  need 
no  longer  be  taken  as  their  criterion.  The  membering,  as 
exemplified  in  the  Tabularium  in  Rome,  in  the  so-called  temple 
of  Fortuna  Virilis,  the  circular  temples  of  Rome  and  of 
Tivoli  (Fig.  39),  all  from  the  first  century  B.C.,  may  be  exam- 
ined for  characteristics  specifically  Roman.  The  peculiarities 
lie  first  in  the  freedom  of  combination  of  parts,  the  original 
significance  of  which  was  now  long  forgotten.  There  is,  to 
be  sure,  always  the  canonical  subdivision  of  the  entablature 
into  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  even  the  Ionic  order  having 
uniformly  a  frieze.  In  general,  the  triglyphs  are  confined  to 
the  Doric  order  and  its  derivatives,  though  in  certain  cases 
they  occur  with  the  Ionic  capital  and  even  the  Corinthian. 
Less  striking  forms,  such  as  dentils,  however,  were  transposed 
at  will.  If  arbitrary  canons  were  violated,  reasonable  dis- 
tinctions were  not  ignored,  and  the  wealth  of  detailed  forms 
liberated  from  inherited  prescriptions  was  applied  with  un- 


no        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITFCTURE 

failing  respect  for  appropriateness  to  position  and  expressive 
functions. 

Applications  of  the  orders.  A  more  characteristic  feature 
lay  in  the  freedom  with  which  the  columnar  system  as  a  whole 
was  combined  with  the  wall.  The  forms  of  the  free-standing 
columns  of  the  temple  portico  were  repeated  along  the  walls 


FIG.  39 — TIVOLI.    "TEMPLE  OF  VESTA" 

of  the  cella,  to  give  the  effect  of  a  full  peristyle  (see  Fig.  41). 
A  similar  unstructural  use  of  the  columnar  forms  had  not 
been  unknown  even  in  the  Greece  of  the  fifth  century  and  had 
since  become  frequent.  Its  adoption  as  the  normal  treatment 
of  the  temple,  the  outcome  of  a  wish  to  secure  a  columnar 
effect  in  spite  of  the  breadth  of  the  Roman  cella,  was  a  wide 
extension  of  its  use. 

The  "Roman  arch  order."  A  still  further  extension  lay  in 
the  use  of  columns  on  a  wall  with  arches,  or  rather  on  the 
piers  of  a  continuous  arcade,  usually  in  several  stories,  a  scheme 
which  became  so  common  as  to  receive  a  special  name,  the 
Roman  arch  order.  The  Tabularium,  the  archive  building  of 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


in 


the  Capitol  (78  B.C.),  furnishes  the  first  dated  example.  This 
scheme,  which  was  later  to  find  its  most  noted  exemplification 
in  the  Colosseum  (Figs.  40,  59)  consisted  of  the  application, 
to  the  piers  of  the  arcade  and  to  the  horizontal  bands  opposite 
the  floors,  of  the  columns  and  entablatures  of  a  Greek  stoa 
with  superposed  orders.  The  mere  superposition  of  ranges  of 


FIG.    40 — ROME.      THE   COLOSSEUM 


arches  was  itself  almost  if  not  quite  as  novel  as  the  use  of 
orders  with  them.  It  is  really  better  justified  to  look  on  the 
arrangement  as  the  strengthening  of  a  Greek  stoa  to  support 
vaulting,  thickening  the  supports  and  building  up  arches 
between  the  columns — a  process  similar  to  that  by  which  the 
first  engaged  columns  in  Greece  were  produced.  The  neces- 
sity for  greater  strength  lay  in  the  desire  to  span  the  passage 
behind  the  facade  by  a  more  permanent  means  than  the 
wooden  ceilings  and  roofs  of  the  Greeks,  usually  by  a  barrel 
vault,  which  sprang  from  above  the  crowns  of  the  external 
arches  across  to  the  inner  wall.  This  was  indeed  a  notable  step 


in  construction,  for  the  outward  thrust  had  no  such  unim- 
peachable abutment  as  had  the  subterranean  vaults  of  the 
Orient  or  the  ends  of  the  arcades  in  aqueducts  and  bridges. 
The  experiment  succeeded,  nevertheless;  the  resistance  of  the 
heavy  outer  wall  proved  more  than  sufficient.  From  the 
purely  formal  standpoint  the  arch  order  was  equally  success- 
ful, in  spite  of  certain  difficulties.  The  longitudinal  vaults, 
being  semicircular,  rose  perforce  even  higher  than  the  top  of 
the  entablature  in  front  of  them,  but  this  was  overcome  by 
the  insertion  of  an  attic  with  pedestals  between  the  stories. 
The  calm  and  dignified  repetition  of  horizontals  and  verticals, 
mastering  and  co-ordinating  the  freer  lines  of  the  arches,  the 
consistent  molded  treatment  of  entablature,  impost,  and 
pedestal,  combine  to  form  a  system  of  powerful  effect,  in- 
dependent of  the  character  of  the  individual  details  or  of  the 
contradiction  of  the  structural  expressions  of  lintel  and  arch. 

Domestic  architecture.  The  private  houses,  which  from  the 
fourth  century  were  built  wall  to  wall  in  close  blocks,  followed 
the  Etruscan  model  in  having  a  central  atrium  with  surround- 
ing rooms.  At  the  rear  was  a  small  garden.  Later  a  more 
elaborate  inner  portion,  built  about  a  court  with  a  colonnade, 
the  so-called  peristylium,  was  added  under  Greek  influence 
(Fig.  54  [C]).  By  the  second  century  B.C.  this  composite  type 
was  the  model  for  the  ordinary  dwellings  of  the  well-to-do; 
from  early  in  the  first  century  the  wealthy  began  to  elaborate 
them  into  veritable  palaces,  with  marble  columns  and  pave- 
ments. On  the  other  hand,  the  pressure  of  metropolitan  life 
now  forced  the  erection  of  tenements  for  the  poor,  in  three 
or  four  stories. 

Other  types.  Throughout  this  period  the  principal  monu- 
mental type  remained  the  temple.  Civil  buildings,  in  Italy 
as  in  Greece,  were  late  in  developing.  Political  assembly  and 
commercial  intercourse  alike  took  place  at  first  in  the  open 
air.  The  senate,  to  be  sure,  which  in  the  beginning  met  out 
of  doors  or  in  some  temple,  was  housed  at  an  early  date  in  a 
special  building,  the  Curia,  which  seems  to  have  followed  the 
scheme  of  the  temple  cella.  By  about  200  B.C.  began  the 
construction  of  basilicas,  exchanges  for  the  merchants,  which 
became  the  seat  of  tribunals  and  gradually  accumulated  other 
uses.  The  first  of  which  we  know  was  built  by  Cato  the  Cen- 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  113 

sor,  in  184  B.C.,  and  others  quickly  followed.  Regarding  the 
original  form  of  these  and,  indeed,  of  all  the  basilicas  of  Rome 
prior  to  the  days  of  Caesar,  we  have  no  certain  knowledge. 

Grouping:  town  planning.  The  grouping  of  public  buildings, 
such  as  the  temples  and  basilicas  which  fronted  the  forum, 
the  principal  open  space  of  the  city,  was  an  irregular  and 
accidental  one,  like  that  of  the  great  sanctuaries  of  early 
Greece.  Only  in  a  town  essentially  Hellenistic,  like  Pompeii, 
was  there  a  more  uniform  treatment  such  as  that  of  the  Ionian 
agoras,  resulting  from  the  inclosing  of  the  forum,  shortly  be- 
fore 100  B.C.,  by  columnar  porticoes  forming  a  long  rectangle. 
Although  the  city  of  Rome,  with  its  unexpected  growth,  con- 
formed to  no  regular  plan,  many  towns  showed  in  their  general 
layout  common  characteristics  derived  from  a  principle  con- 
secrated in  Italy  from  the  earliest  times,  division  by  two  axes 
which  crossed  at  right  angles.  Parallel  to  the  principal 
streets  which  marked  these  axes  were  minor  streets  delimiting 
the  house  blocks;  in  one  of  the  angles  was  frequently  the 
forum,  as  at  Pompeii. 

Imperial  architecture,  c.  50  B.C.  to  350  A.D.  Development. 
The  transformation  of  Roman  architecture  to  its  imperial 
scale  and  splendor  began  with  the  buildings  of  Pompey  and  of 
Julius  Caesar,  in  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.C.  Pompey 
erected  in  55  the  earliest  stone  theater,  built  up  from  the  plain 
on  an  arched  substructure ;  Caesar  did  not  content  himself  with 
adding  a  new  basilica  to  the  forum,  and  providing  better 
quarters  for  the  senate  and  other  assemblies,  but  initiated 
the  custom  of  adding  an  entirely  new  forum,  beyond  the  time- 
honored  buildings  which  prevented  any  enlargement  of  the  old 
Forum  Romanum.  The  buildings  and  rebuildings  of  Augus- 
tus were  so  numerous  as  to  justify  his  boast  that  he  found 
Rome  of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble.  Most  noteworthy,  per- 
haps, was  the  forum  which  bears  his  name  (Fig.  44  [C]),  with 
its  octastyle  Corinthian  temple  of  Mars.  Agrippa,  his  ablest 
minister,  gave  great  attention  to  the  aqueducts,  and  built  the 
first  of  the  great  thermae.  In  Augustus's  reign  also  the 
architect  Vitruvius  compiled,  largely  from  Greek  sources,  his 
compendium  of  rules  and  maxims,  designed  to  assist  in  the  dif- 
fusion of  correct  principles.  Under  Nero  the  destruction  of 
crowded  quarters  by  fire  gave  opportunity  for  rebuilding  them 


ii4        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

on  a  regular  plan,  with  better  materials,  lower  houses,  and 
wider  streets.  With  the  Flavian  emperors,  69-96  A.D.,  the 
tendencies  toward  regal  luxury  of  accommodations  and  toward 
elaboration  of  detail  reached  their  height.  Their  palace  on 
the  Palatine  hill  with  its  magnificent  vaulted  halls,  their 
temples  and  fora,  in  the  entablatures  of  which  there  was' 
scarcely  a  member  left  undecorated,  the  "Composite"  capital, 
in  which  elements  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  were  combined, 
attest  their  striving  for  enrichment  of  form.  Under  Trajan, 
Hadrian,  and  the  Antonines,  while  the  magnitude  of  con- 
structive undertakings  increased  still  further,  there  was  a 
reaction  in  favor  of  Hellenic  forms.  In  the  gigantic  Forum  of 
Trajan  (Fig.  44  [F]) — itself  composed  on  Oriental  principles — 
the  great  basilica  dispenses  with  the  vaulted  arcades  of  earlier 
works,  and  employs  a  purely  Greek  system  of  column  and 
lintel.  The  temples  of  the  time  bear  entablatures  in  which 
the  multiplicity  of  ornament  is  much  reduced — in  some  cases 
even  to  the  point  of  austerity. 

Constructive  advances.  At  the  same  time,  however,  Roman 
constructive  science  was  proceeding  with  rapid  stride,  con- 
quering successively  the  difficulties  of  vaulting  semicircular 
apses,  circular  rooms,  and  rectangular  rooms  requiring  lateral 
openings.  In  the  Pantheon  of  Hadrian,  the  halls  of  the 
imperial  thermae  of  Trajan,  Caracalla,  and  Diocletian,  these 
elements  attained  vast  size  and  monumental  effects  hitherto 
unattainable.  In  the  thermas  also  Roman  architecture 
achieved  some  of  its  greatest  triumphs  of  logical  planning  at  a 
great  scale.  The  laying  out  of  new  towns  gave  opportunity 
to  extend  its  principles,  as  in  Hellenistic  Asia,  to  the  whole  city. 

Prevalent  types.  The  temples  no  longer  appeared  as  the 
sole  or  even  as  the  chief  monuments.  In  spite  of  vast  size 
and  costly  materials  they  had  become  secondary  in  importance, 
as  an  expression  of  the  national  life,  which  was  administrative, 
commercial,  pleasure-loving,  and  egoistic.  Besides  luxurious 
palaces  and  temples  for  self -deification,  the  emperors  erected 
triumphal  columns  and  arches,  mausolea  surpassing  the 
original  at  Halicarnassus  in  size  and  magnificence,  and  in- 
dulged the  populace  with  buildings  for  their  favorite  amuse- 
ments. 

Late  imperial  architecture.     In  the  later  monuments  a  new 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  115 

logic  gradually  shows  itself  in  the  relations  of  arch  and  column, 
coincident  with  a  fresh  wave  of  Oriental  influences  sweeping 
over  construction  and  detail  alike.  In  the  Pantheon  and  the 
thermae  the  arches  are  not  framed  in  by  entablatures  and 
columns,  but  rest  frankly  on  them;  in  the  second  century 
monuments  of  Syria  and  the  palace  of  Diocletian  on  the 
Adriatic,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  further  steps 
are  taken  in  the  elimination  of  the  entablature  and  the  bringing 
down  of  the  arch  directly  on  the  head  of  the  column  (Fig.  58). 
Thus  at  the  very  end  of  its  development  Roman  architecture 
attained,  by  the  abandonment  of  its  formal  canons,  the 
solution  of  the  difficulties  of  expression  which  confronted  it, 
laying  the  foundation  for  the  development  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  • 

Artistic  centers.  Throughout  this  long  history  the  center  of 
artistic  activity  had  remained  the  city  of  Rome,  which 
focussed  the  influences  of  Greece  and  the  Orient.  In  the  last 
days  of  the  empire  the  balance  of  power  inclined  more  and 
more  to  the  east,  and  under  Constantine,  306-337,  the  seat  of 
administration  was  removed  thither,  to  Byzantium  or  Con- 
stantinople, on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus.  The  wealth  and 
population  of  Rome  rapidly  fell  away.  The  adoption  of 
Christianity  as  the  state  religion  in  330  caused  the  temples  to 
fall  gradually  into  disuse,  and  temples  and  public  buildings 
alike  were  plundered  for  materials  to  build  the  great  Christian 
basilicas,  the  only  important  fresh  undertakings  of  the  time. 
With  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  Goths  in  410  and  the  Vandals 
in  455  the  last  vestiges  of  its  imperial  power  were  broken, 
and  the  abdication  of  Romulus  Augustulus  on  demand  of  the 
barbarian  chieftain  Odoacer  in  476  marked  the  end  even  of  the 
nominal  existence  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  west. 

Character  of  important  types.  Whereas  in  Greece  it  is  the 
development  of  the  forms  of  detail,  to  which  the  Greeks  gave 
the  most  scrupulous  attention,  which  is  of  primary  importance, 
in  Rome  it  is  rather  the  development  of  the  great  functional 
types  which  demands  an  intensive  study. 

Temples.  In  Rome  the  temple  was  no  more  intended  than 
in  Greece  for  congregational  worship,  and  the  great  size  to 
which  it  ultimately  grew  was  rather  the  result  of  a  desire  for 
imposing  effect.  The  ritual,  influenced  by  that  of  the  Greeks, 


n6        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

left  considerable  liberty  in  form  and  orientation,  though  the 
image  was  preferably  at  the  east.  In  matters  of  disposition 
the  development  was  toward  a  steadily  closer  approximation 
to  the  Greek  scheme  with  a  continuous  exterior  peristyle. 
The  Etruscan  temples  had  never  a  colonnade  at  the  rear,  the 
Roman  cellas,  as  early  as  republican  times,  were  provided 
with  a  decorative  disguise  of  engaged  columns  on  the  rear  as 
well  as  on  the  sides,  and  this  was  retained  in  early  imperial 


FIG.  41 — NIMES.     "THE  MAISON  CARREE" 


times.  The  best  preserved  and  most  famous  example  is  the 
so-called  Maison  Carree  at  Nimes  in  southern  France  (Fig.  41), 
a  hexastyle  temple  of  rich  Corinthian  order,  which  shows  that 
the  Romans  were  not  behind  the  Greeks  in  mastery  of  propor- 
tions and  subtlety  of  form.  The  delicate  curvatures  of  line 
and  surface  which  relieved  the  regularity  and  varied  the  play 
of  light  and  shade  in  Greek  monuments  recur  in  its  plan. 
Other  temples,  like  that  of  Mars  in  the  Forum  of  Augustus, 
perpetuate  a  type  already  found  in  Etruscan  times,  and 
approaching  the  peristylar  arrangement  more  nearly — having 
a  free-standing  colonnade  along  the  sides  as  well  as  the  front, 
but  not  across  the  rear.'  The  tendency  was  more  and  more 
toward  a  complete  peristyle,  still  in  use  in  half-Greek  Pompeii 


FIG.  42 — ROME.   INTERIOR  OF  THE  PANTHEON  (RESTORED  BY  ISABELl.E), 
SHOWING  THE  CONDITION  AFTER  THE  RESTORATION  OF  3EVERUS 


n8        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

in  the  second  century  B.C.  before  the  establishment  of  the 
Roman  colony  there,  and  appearing  in  Rome  with  the  temple 
completed  by  Augustus  in  the  Forum  of  Caesar.  One  of  the 
most  notable  examples  was  the  double  temple  of  Venus  and 
Rome  built  by  Hadrian  near  the  Forum.  It  had  fronts  of 
ten  columns,  and  a  cella  with  two  chambers  back  to  back, 
which  were  for  the  first  time  vaulted  with  barrel  vaults.  A 
magnificent  decoration  of  half  columns  and  statued  niches 
along  the  interior  walls  is  the  lineal  descendant  of  the  interior 
colonnades  of  the  early  Greek  cellas,  through  the  temple  at 
Bassas  and  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Didyma.  A  few  temples, 
though  rectangular,  varied  from  the  traditional  arrangement 
in  having  the  portico  built  against  the  long  side,  but  this  was 
only  from  special  exigencies.  Both  stylobate  and  podium 
were  used  as  substructures;  the  roof  remained  steadily  a 
gabled  one,  fronted  by  a  pediment.  In  a  few  instances  only, 
were  temples  left  roofless. 

Circular  temples.  A  class  of  considerable  importance  was 
that  of  the  round  temples.  The  two  well-known  republican 
examples,  in  Rome  and  Tivoli  (Fig.  39),  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  similar  buildings  in  Greece.  Both  are  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  with  unvaulted  cellas.  The  first  Pantheon  in  Rome, 
built  by  Agrippa,  must  have  been  similar  in  principle,  though 
on  a  far  larger  scale.  The  Pantheon  which  stands  to-day, 
rebuilt  by  Hadrian  (120-124  A.D.)  and  restored  under  Severus 
(202  A. D.),  shows,  on  the  contrary,  an  application  of  the  new 
Roman  constructive  methods  (Fig.  42).  A  single  hemispher- 
ical dome  spans  the  circular  interior  of  over  one  hundred  and 
forty  feet  diameter,  its  crown  at  just  an  equal  height  above 
the  pavement.  Light  comes  through  a  single  eye  at  the  top, 
through  which  rain  may  fall  without  causing  any  incon- 
venience, thanks  to  the  area  and  volume  of  the  interior.  The 
massive  walls  are  pierced  by  eight  niches,  alternately  square 
and  semicircular,  originally  arched  across,  with  screens  of 
Corinthian  columns;  the  vault  is  deeply  recessed  with  coffers 
diminishing  as  they  ascend,  and  once  decorated  with  bronze 
rosettes.  A  rich  veneer  of  marble  slabs  over  the  constructive 
brickwork  of  the  walls  complements  the  unrivaled  abstract 
unity  of  the  general  form. 

Temple  Enclosures.     Although  many  early  temples  in  Rome, 


i2o        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

and  their  successors  on  the  same  sites,  stood  directly  on  the 
borders  of  the  Forum,  it  was  preferred  in  later  days  to  follow 
the  practice  of  Hellenistic  Greece  and  place  the  temple  in  a 
colonnaded  inclosure,  serving  both  to  give  shelter  to  the 
worshippers  who  watched  the  sacrifice  and  to  heighten  the 
architectural  effect.  At  Pompeii,  in  the  precinct  of  Apollo, 
this  arrangement  was  a  legacy  from  the  Greek  days  of  the 
town;  in  Rome  it  came  in,  with  the  peripteral  temple,  in  the 
Forum  of  Caesar,  which  was  at  the  same  time  a  temple 
inclosure  (Fig.  44  [B]).  Later  architects  were  not  contented 
with  the  simple  rectangular  plan.  In  the  Forum  of  Augustus 
they  introduced  great  segmental  exedras  to  right  and  left; 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Baalbek  in  Syria  they  added  a 
second,  hexagonal  court  in  front  of  the  principal  one. 

Size  of  temples.  In  size  the  temples  varied  as  much  as  those 
of  Greece,  and  within  much  the  same  limits.  No  Greek 
temple,  however,  rivaled  the  one  at  Baalbek  in  the  complexity 
and  extent  of  its  accessories,  with  which  it  covered  in  all  a 
space  a  thousand  by  four  hundred  feet. 

Fora.  The  forum  served  at  first  for  all  forms  of  trade  as 
well  as  for  political  assembly,  and  this  remained  true  in  the 
smaller  towns.  In  the  cities,  and  especially  in  Rome,  the 
volume  of  trade  forced  the  institution  of  subordinate  fora  for 
various  classes  of  goods,  leaving  the  forum  civile  for  the  bankers 
and  for  general  business  intercourse.  About  it  were  grouped 
the  principal  public  buildings  (Fig.  43).  Thamugadi  (Tim- 
gad),  a  colony  planted  by  Trajan  in  Africa,  shows  the  form 
which  might  be  selected  for  the  forum  in  imperial  times,  in  a 
case  where  all  was  planned  from  the  beginning — a  square 
court  surrounded  by  an  unbroken  peristyle.  In  Rome,  the 
supplementary  fora  civilia  built  by  the  emperors  culminated 
in  that  of  Trajan,  designed  by  Apollodorus  of  Damascus, 
which  included  a  vast  complex  of  buildings  for  varied  uses 
(Fig.  44  [F]).  It  followed  in  disposition,  as  has  been  recog- 
nized, the  Egyptian  temple  scheme.  First  came  a  broad  court, 
the  forum  proper,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  colonnade, 
on  the  flanks  of  which  were  enormous  exedras  bordered  with 
shops.  Across  the  further  side  of  the  court,  like  the  hypostyle 
hall  of  the  Egyptian  temple,  lay  a  basilica  of  unequaled 
extent ;  beyond  it,  like  the  Egyptian  sanctuary,  was  the  temple 


»•»<&      •  •     ^ 

^;//4/^-% 

..-<SV/  ^  /£  7  L^  ,ae 


FIG.    44 — ROME.       THE    FORUM     ROMANUM    AND    THE     FORA    OF    THE 
EMPKRORS.        PLAN.        (RESTORED    BY    GROMORT) 


(A)  Forum  Romanum 

(B)  Forum  of  Julius  Caesar 
(O   Forum  of  AiiKur.tun 

(D)  Forum  of  Vrapasian 

(E)  Forum  Transitorium 

(F)  Forum  of  Trajan 


(G)  Area  ("apitolina 

(M)  Comitiutn 

(1)  Tabularium 

(2)  Curia 

(j)  Basilica  Julia 

(4)  Basilica  /Emilia 


(5)  Basilica     of      Maxcntiiu 

(Constantino) 

(6)  Temple  of  Venus  Gfnetrix 

(7)  Temple     of      Mars      the 

Avenger 

(8)  Basilica  Ulpia 


122        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

of  Trajan,  surrounded  by  a  second,  oblong  inclosure.  Even 
the  pylon  and  the  obelisk  had  their  counterparts  in  the  monu- 
mental arch  which  gave  access  to  the  first  court  and  the 
triumphal  column  which  stood  at  the  entrance  to  the  second. 
There  was  a  variety  and  technical  dexterity  of  planning 
which  the  Egyptian  prototypes  had  lacked. 

Adjuncts  of  the  forum.  As  adjuncts  to  the  Forum  Romanum, 
which  remained  the  political  center,  were  the  Curia  or  senate 
house,  the  Comitium  for  the  meeting  of  the  assembly,  and  the 
Rostrum  from  which  orators  addressed  the  populace.  This 
platform,  which  stood  at  the  end  of  the  principal  space  toward 
the  Capitol,  was  richly  decorated  with  sculptured  parapets 
and  small  commemorative  columns,  as  well  as  with  the  ships' 
prows  which  gave  it  its  name.  On  the  pavement  of  the  forum 
itself  was  a  forest  of  statues,  and  such  triumphal  arches  and 
columns  as  could  find  place,  making,  with  the  facades  of 
temples  and  basilicas,  an  effect  as  rich  as  those  of  the  national 
sanctuaries  of  Greece. 

Basilicas.  The  basilicas,  which  served  the  varied  neces- 
sities of  intercourse  under  cover,  were  not  uniform  in  plan, 
but  were  in  general  buildings  of  spacious  interior,  with  col- 
umnar supports,  not  narrow  and  open  on  one  side  like  a 
gallery  or  stoa,  but  broad  and  inclosed,  like  a  hall.  In  Greece 
there  were  already  a  few  buildings  which  fall  under  this 
definition,  though  they  were  not  designated  by  the  same  name. 
They  belonged  both  to  the  Greek  type  of  plan,  a  deep  hall 
with  longitudinal  colonnades,  and  an  apse  opposite  the 
entrance,  and  to  the  Oriental  type,  a  broad  hall  with  an 
interior  peristyle.  In  Rome  the  existing  monuments  also 
include  examples  of  both  types,  to  neither  of  which  can  a 
chronological  priority  be  assigned.  The  Oriental  type  counted 
among  its  representatives  two  of  the  most  conspicuous  build- 
ings, the  Basilica  Julia  in  the  Forum  Romanum  and  the  Basil- 
ica Ulpia  in  the  Forum  of  Trajan  (see  Fig.  44  [3]  and  [8]).  The 
Basilica  Julia  turned  its  long,  principal  fagade  to  the  Forum 
and  was  lined  on  the  rear  by  a  range  of  shops.  Between  was 
an  oblong  hall  surrounded  by  two  concentric  vaulted  corri- 
dors in  two  stories,  of  an  ordonnance  similar  to  that  of  the 
Tabularium.  The  impossibility  of  securing  sufficient  light  in 
the  central  hall  through  the  lateral  openings  gives  rise  to  the 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


123 


assumption  that  its  ceiling  was  raised  on  a  clerestory  with 
windows  above  the  flat  roofs  of  the  aisles,  as  in  the  Egyptian 
temples  and  in  certain  late  Greek  buildings  which  show 
Egyptian  influence.  The  building  was  exceptional  in  having 
such  an  open  treatment  of  the  exterior,  arising  partly,  doubt- 
less, from  a  desire  for  a  rich  effect  suitable  to  its  conspicuous 
position.  Similar  in  its  general  plan  to  the  Basilica  Julia  was 
the  Basilica  Ulpia,  in  spite  of  its  having  columns  and  lintels  in- 
stead of  piers  and  an  arch  order.  The  central  space,  although 
over  eighty  feet  in  span,  was  doubtless  covered  by  a  wooden 


FIG.  45 — ROME. 


BASILICA  OF  MAXENTIUS,  OR  CONSTANTINE.    (RESTORED 
BY  D'ESPOUY) 


roof.  A  unique  addition  was  that  of  the  great  apses  at 
either  end.  The  Basilica  Emilia,  which  forms  a  pendant  to 
the  Basilica  Julia  by  its  position  in  the  Forum,  and  owes  its 
existing  form  to  much  the  same  time,  seems  to  show  the  con- 
trary plan  of  a  narrow  and  deep  hall,  turning  its  flank  to  the 
Forum,  and  having  its  galleries  along  two  sides  only.  The 
same  variety  could  be  traced  through  the  provincial  examples. 
The  basilica  of  Maxentius.  Unique  in  its  structure  among  the 


A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

basilicas  was  one  in  the  Sacred  Way  begun  by  Maxentius  and 
completed  by  Constant ine  (Figs.  44  [5]  and  45).  A  vault  was 
substituted  for  the  wooden  roof  over  the  nave,  the  vaulting 
system  being  taken  over  almost  intact  from  its  earliest  repre- 
sentatives, the  great  halls  of  the  baths  in  which  we  shall 
study  it.  There  are  but  three  bays  in  a  length  of  nearly  two 
hundred  feet,  and  the  clear  span  of  the  nave  is  over  seventy- 
five  feet.  In  spite  of  the  considerable  modifications  necessary 
in  the  form  of  the  points  of  support  and  of  the  clerestory,  the 
essential  scheme  of  the  basilica  is  recognizable.  It  belonged 
originally  to  the  Greek  type,  with  aisles  along  two  sides  only, 
the  entrance  on  one  of  the  narrow  ends,  and  an  apse  opposite. 
As  completed  by  Constantine  it  had  a  second  entrance  in 
the  center  of  the  broad  side  toward  the  Forum,  and  a  second 
apse  opposite  this,  producing  a  hybrid  plan.  In  the  adoption 
of  the  fire-proof  and  permanent  methods  of  covering  which  had 
been  developed  in  other  classes  of  buildings  the  Basilica  of 
Maxentius  marks  a  notable  progress,  prophetic  in  many  ways 
of  the  development  of  the  Christian  basilica  into  the  mediaeval 
vaulted  church. 

Theaters.  The  preconditions  of  the  development  of  the 
Roman  theater,  in  its  differences  from  the  Greek  theater,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  native  Italic  drama  and  the  method  of  its 
presentation  in  early  Rome.  As  the  audience  at  first  stood  on 
level  ground  during  the  performance,  the  stage  had  to  be  of  a 
moderate  height.  As  there  was  no  chorus  there  was  no 
necessity  for  an  open  space  or  orchestra  before  the  stage. 
The  first  inclosed  theaters  were  of  wood,  doubtless  rectangular, 
with  seats  parallel  to  the  stage  and  soon  arranged  in  ascend- 
ing tiers  (Fig.  46).  Stage  and  auditorium  were  easily  brought 
into  architectural  unity  and  under  a  single  roof.  No  great 
change  in  principle  was  involved  in  the  substitution,  within  the 
rectangular  building,  of  segmental  or  circular  seats,  as  seen 
in  the  small  theater  at  Pompeii,  built  soon  after  80  B.C.,  under 
the  influence  of  the  existing  Hellenistic  theater  close  by. 
As  the  dimensions  increased,  an  awning  or  velarium  had  to  be 
substituted  for  a  wooden  roof,  but  the  walls  of  the  building  re- 
mained of  equal  height,  and  the  one  at  the  rear  of  the  stage, 
the  sc&naz  frons,  decorated  with  columns  in  imitation  of  the 
background  of  the  Greek  stage,  had  to  be  treated  in  two  or 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


125 


three  stories.  This  was  the  state  of  the  Roman  theater 
when,  just  before  the  end  of  the  republic,  a  single  building 
established  the  final  form. 

Stone  theaters  in  Rome.  The  theater  of  Pompey,  the  first 
stone  theater  in  Rome,  built  in  55  B.C.,  is  stated  to  have  fol- 
lowed the  model  of  the  theater  at  Mitylene.  The  features  de- 
rived from  this  prototype,  however,  can  have  been  merely 


FIG.    46 — SCHEMATIC     REPRESENTATION    OF    THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE 
ROMAN  THEATER.       (FIECHTER) 


(B)  Stage 


(S)  Senatorial  seats 


(C)  Cavea 


(P)  Passages 


(T)  Tribunalia 


the  general  idea  of  the  building,  with  a  vast  colonnaded  court 
for  promenading,  and,  especially,  the  dominating  circular  form 
of  the  auditorium.  With  this  came  the  orchestra,  which, 
however,  was  reduced  as  much  as  possible,  to  a  semicircle. 
The  Roman  element  retained  was  the  close  structural  union 
of  the  auditorium  with  the  stage,  the  walls  of  which  doubtless 
rose  to  the  full  height  of  the  seats.  A  necessary  prerequisite 
for  the  execution  of  the  auditorium  in  stone,  on  a  plain,  was 
the  development  of  the  Roman  technique  of  vaulting,  by 
which  the  seats  were  supported  far  above  the  ground,  and  by 
which  radial  openings  were  left  for  passages  and  stairs  to 
the  upper  ranges.  For  the  fagade  the  scheme  of  the  Tabula- 
rium,  with  arches  and  columnar  decoration,  was  adopted,  as 
later  in  the  Colosseum  (Fig.  40).  Thus  whereas  in  Greece 
orchestra  and  circle  of  seats  were  the  primitive  ejements  and 


126        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


the  stage  with  its  accessory  buildings  was  a  later  development, 
in  Rome  the  stage  was  the  original  component,  and  the 
orchestra  and  circular  auditorium  were  additions  taken  over 
from  Greece.  The  product  of  the  synthesis,  as  exemplified  in 
the  three  great  theaters  of  the  city  of  Rome — those  of  Pompey, 
Marcellus,  and  Balbus — or  in  the  theater  at  Ostia  (Fig.  47), 
was  a  creation  which  had  its  own  merits,  not  only  in  adaptation 


FIG.   47 — OSTIA.      THE   THEATER.      (RESTORED   BY   ANDRE) 

to  the  requirements  of  the  Roman  drama,  but  in  unity  of 
design  and  splendor  of  external  and  internal  effect. 

Theaters  in  the  provinces.  In  the  provinces  the  same  scheme 
was  repeated,  although  less  ample  means  usually  resulted  in 
the  use  of  convenient  hillsides  to  support  at  least  a  part  of  the 
auditorium,  as  at  Verona,  and  at  Orange  in  France.  In  most 
of  the  eastern  examples  the  looseness  of  connection  in  plan 
persisted  in  spite  of  the  adoption  of  a  high  stage  background. 
At  Aspendos  in  Asia  Minor,  however,  the  interior  shows  the 
full  Roman  type,  with  one  of  the  richest  developments  of  the 
sconce  frons.  In  contrast  to  most  Augustan  and  later  western 
stage  backgrounds,  which  show  an  ever  greater  elaboration  of 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  127 

three  great  niches  enframing  the  doors,  this  shows  the  ten- 
dency of  the  east  to  multiply  openings  and  columnar  subdi- 
visions while  retaining  the  flat  wall  surface.  In  both  cases  the 
scana  jrons  was  no  longer  a  resultant,  a  means,  but  an  end  in 
itself,  resulting  only  remotely  from  suggestions  from  the 
drama,  treated  rather  in  accordance  with  the  general  decora- 
tive conceptions  of  imperial  architecture. 

Amphitheaters.  Among  the  Romans  the  drama  was  second- 
ary to  the  more  exciting  amusement  of  gladiatorial  com- 
bats, introduced  from  Campania  in  the  third  century  and 
held  at  first  in  the  forum  or  the  circus.  In  the  provision  of 
special  architectural  arrangements  for  such  contests  Rome  was 
also  behind  Campania,  for  in  Pompeii  an  elliptical  arena  with 
stepped  seats  was  begun  soon  after  80  B.C.,  whereas  in  Rome  it 
was  not  until  58  B.C.  that  two  theater  auditoria  of  wood,  facing 
each  other,  were  built  to  form  the  first  amphitheater  of  the 
city.  The  games  of  Caesar  were  still  celebrated  within 
wooden  stands,  and  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Augustus, 
29  B.C.,  that  Rome  had  its  amphitheater  in  stone.  Although 
in  Pompeii,  however,  the  arena  was  largely  excavated  in  the 
earth,  and  the  rear  seats  were  supported  on  solid  masonry, 
in  Rome  the  amphitheater  was  built  up  from  the  plain  like 
the  theaters,  with  a  richly  arcaded  exterior. 

The  Colosseum.  The  Flavian  amphitheater,  known  as  the 
Colosseum,  which  succeeded  that  of  Augustus  in  the  years 
70-82  A.D.,  shows  this  arrangement  in  its  final  and  most 
splendid  form  (Fig.  40).  About  the  elliptical  arena  rose  three 
successive  tiers  of  seats  separated  by  high  parapets,  and 
crowned,  very  probably,  by  an  encircling  colonnade.  On  the 
exterior  were,  first,  three  stories  of  open  arcades  decorated 
with  the  arch  order,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian.  A  fourth- 
story  wall,  perhaps  originally  of  wood,  was  treated  with 
Corinthian  pilasters.  Corbels  near  the  top  carried  wooden 
masts  which  probably  supported  the  immense  velarium,  and 
formed  the  necessary  visual  crown  for  the  uniformly  repeated 
orders  below.  The  regular  spacing  of  the  tiers,  diminishing 
rhythmically  in  perspective,  and  the  unbroken  sweep  of  the 
cornices  about  such  a  vast  surface,  gave  an  unequaled  majesty 
and  dignity,  which  justified  the  identification  of  the  Colosseum 
with  the  power  of  Rome  itself.  Structurally  the  triumph  was 


128        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

no  less  remarkable.  The  elliptical  plan  required  every  one  of 
the  radial  passages  and  every  foot  of  the  concentric  vaults  to 
differ  from  its  neighbors,  yet  much  was  executed  in  stone,  ac- 
curately cut  to  the  most  difficult  geometrical  shapes.  In  the 
third  arcade,  where  practical  necessities  prevented  the  carry- 
ing of  a  concentric  barrelVault  above  the  arches  of  the  facade, 
as  had  been  done  in  the  previous  stories,  the  vault  was  dropped 
to  the  same  level  as  the  arches  and  penetrated  by  continua- 
tions of  them.  The  resulting  form,  the  groined  vault,  here 
appearing  for  the  first  time  in  Italy,  had  general  advantages 
which  were  soon  manifest,  in  that  it  required  for  its  support, 
not  a  continuous  massive  abutment,  but  isolated  piers  on 
which  the  thrusts  were  concentrated.  After  the  form  of  the 
amphitheater  in  the  capital,  others  were  erected  in  the  Italian 
and  provincial  cities,  notable  remains  existing  at  Verona, 
Nimes,  Aries,  and  many  other  places.  These  had  seats  for 
twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand  spectators,  while  the  greatest, 
in  Rome  and  Campania,  had  a  capacity  of  twice  that  number. 

Circuses.  Mightier  still  were  the  circuses  for  chariot-racing, 
the  oldest  of  Roman  amusements,  first  held  in  the  valley 
between  the  Palatine  and  the  Aventine  hills,  where  in  the 
course  of  years  was  built  the  Circus  Maximus,  with  seats 
ultimately  for  two  hundred  thousand  spectators.  The  course 
was  long  and  narrow,  with  a  sharp  turn  like  that  of  the  Greek 
stadion,  to  the  seating  arrangements  of  which  those  of  the 
circus  also  conformed.  Down  the  center  of  the  course  was  the 
barrier,  or  spina,  separating  the  stretches,  adorned  with 
obelisks  and  monuments;  at  the  end  opposite  the  turn  were 
the  starting  arrangements,  with  individual  cells  for  each 
chariot,  in  a  segment  focussing  on  the  first  corner.  The 
exterior  was  on  a  system  like  that  of  the  theaters  and  amphi- 
theaters. 

Baths  and  thernuz.  The  Roman  bathing  establishments 
progressed  from  the  simplest  utilitarian  structures  to  luxurious 
institutions,  offering  facilities  not  only  for  bathing  and  physical 
exercise,  but  for  the  social  intercourse  of  a  modern  cafe  or 
club.  Examples  from  the  later  days  of  the  republic  at 
Pompeii  show,  at  a  small  scale,  the  typical  complement  of 
rooms  and  their  arrangement.  A  court,  or  palaestra,  for  ex- 
ercise was  accompanied  by  a  series  of  rooms  in  which  dif- 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


129 


ferent  temperatures  were  maintained:  the  frigidarium,  the 
tepidarium,  the  caldarium.  The  frigidarium  contained  the 
cold  plunge  bath,  the  caldarium  the  hot  baths,  the  tepidarium 
served  to  lessen  the  shock  in  passing  from  one  to  the  other  and 


ifHT 


i  r- 


h£ 


r  r 


LTJ: 


ci 


.idin 

/- 

-. .     • 


FIG.  48 — ROME.     THERMS  OF  CARACALLA.     PLAN.     (RESTORED  BY  BLOUET) 


(A)         Entrance 
(B.  B)   Porticoes 
(C,  C)  Private  baths? 
(D,  D)  Vestibules 


(E,  E)  Apodyteria 

(F,  F)  Peristyles 

(G)  Tepidarium 

(H)  Caldarium 


(I)        Frigidarium 

(L,  L)   Halls  (or  exercise 


(M) 
(N) 


Stadium 

Reservoirs  and  aqueduct 


also  might  contain  basins  for  those  who  found  the  cold  bath 
too  severe.  A  dressing-room — the  apodyterium — and  a  steam 
bath — the  laconicum — were  further  desirable  features.  In 
baths  intended  for  both  men  and  women  two  suites  of  these 
rooms  were  provided,  their  caldaria  abutting  near  the  furnace, 
with  the  other  rooms  successively  more  distant  from  it. 
The  thermcB  of  Caracalla,  217  A.D.  In  the  thermae  of  im- 


i3o        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

penal  times,  initiated  by  Agrippa,  all  these  features  were 
magnified  to  enormous  scale  and  combined  with  those  of  the 
Greek  gymnasium.  The  bathing  establishments  proper  were 
surrounded  by  vast  inclosures  with  shaded  walks,  exedras,  and 
areas  for  various  games.  Among  the  dozen  thermae  in  which 
successive  emperors  tried  to  outdo  -one  another,  those  of 
Caracalla  are  distinguished  both  by  their  fair  preservation 
and  by  the  logic  and  the  formal  interest  of  their  plan  (Fig.  48). 
The  three  principal  elements,  each  unique,  were  placed  on  the 


FIG.    49  —  ROME. 


THERMS  OF  DIOCLETIAN. 
BY  PAULIN) 


TEPIDARIUM.      (RESTORED 


main  axis  in  an  ascending  series,  the  frigidarium  with  flat 
ceiling  or  open  to  the  sky,  the  tepidarium  with  groined  vaults, 
the  caldarium  with  a  dome  and  niches  like  those  of  the  Pan- 
theon. To  left  and  right  were  vestibules  and  dressing-rooms, 
with  two  great  peristylar  palsestras  surrounded  by  minor 
rooms,  still  of  large  size.  The  tepidarium,  as  the  room  of 
medium  temperature,  was  seized  on  as  the  key  to  the  circula- 
tion of  people,  and  its  axis  was  taken  as  the  principal  trans- 
verse line  of  the  plan,  prolonged  through  the  peristyles  and 
their  exedrae.  Separate  access  to  the  courts  was  provided  from 
both  front  and  side,  and  the  rooms  of  the  rear  were  opened 
freely  to  the  gardens  by  means  of  colonnades.  The  gardens 
themselves  had  their  axes  emphasized  by  the  stands  opposite 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE  131 

the  projecting  caldarium,  and  by  subordinate  exedrse.  The 
variety  of  form  of  the  units  and  the  rich  interplay  of  the  axes 
have  been  an  inspiration  for  the  complex  and  elaborate  plans 
of  modern  t'.mes. 

The  tepidarium.  Most  fruitful  for  later  developments  was 
the  typical  form  of  the  tepidarium,  repeated  in  the  baths  of 
Diocletian  (Fig.  49)  for  the  caldarium  as  well.  Its  length  was 
divided  into  three  bays  marked  by  enormous  columns,  each 
with  a  fragment  of  entablature  which  served  as  impost  for 
the  groined  vaults.  These  had  the  form  of  a  longitudinal 
cylinder  intersected  by  three  transverse  cylinders,  spaced  a 
short  distance  apart  and  projecting  slightly  beyond  the  inter- 
sections. The  square  mass  of  masonry  between  the  diago- 
nally descending  groins  rested  on  the  entablatures  of  the  col- 
umns. The  entire  outward  thrust  of  the  vaults,  concentrated 
on  these  points,  was  sustained  by  the  deep  transverse  walls 
behind  them,  which  were  carried  up  as  visible  buttresses  high 
above  the  roofs  of  the  neighboring  rooms.  These  struck  in 
at  the  height  of  the  spring  of  the  vaults,  leaving  the  semi- 
circular spaces  beneath  the  crown  free  for  great  clerestory 
windows  in  each  bay  and  at  the  ends.  The  spaces  between  the 
buttress  walls  were  filled  with  barrel-vaulted  niches,  across 
which  were  carried  screens  of  relatively  smaller  columns  which 
emphasized  the  great  scale  of  the  main  order.  As  in  the 
Pantheon  the  vaults  were  richly  coffered,  the  walls  incrusted 
with  marble. 

Aqueducts.  Bridges.  The  aqueducts  which  furnished  the 
water  supply  necessary  for  the  baths  and  for  the  general  use 
of  a  Roman  city  were  for  the  most  part  not  on  a  pressure  sys- 
tem, but  were  carried  into  the  city  at  a  high  level  after  being 
brought  with  a  gradual  fall  from  elevated  sources.  For  a  city 
in  the  midst  of  a  plain,  like  the  metropolis,  this  necessitated 
the  support  of  a  great  length  of  the  water  channel  at  a  con- 
siderable height  above  the  ground.  The  uniform  ranges  of 
arches  on  tall  piers,  by  which  this  necessity  was  met,  show 
construction  in  stone  or  concrete  devoid  of  every  extraneous 
ornament,  yet  impressive  by  the  ruggedness  of  the  material 
and  the  straightforwardness  with  which  constructive  methods 
are  confessed.  Where  the  aqueduct  had  to  be  carried  across 
a  deep  valley  there  was  an  added  interest  due  to  the  varied  size 


132        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  arches  which  frankly  took  advantage  of  the  best  footing. 
The  most  famous  instance  is  the  Pont  du  Gard  at  Nimes 
(Fig.  50),  where  there  are  three  ranges  of  arches  one  above 
another,  the  whole  a  sixth  of  a  mile  long  and  over  a  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  above  the  stream  in  the  valley.  Of  the  heavy 
voussoired  arches  of  stone  in  the  two  lower  ranges,  the  pair 
over  the  river  are  distinguished  by  a  visibly  greater  width  than 
the  others,  those  next  the  slopes  by  a  corresponding  reduction. 


FIG.  50 — NIMES.   THE  "  PONT  DU  CARD" 


The  imposts  are  placed  freely  at  whatever  heights  the  spans 
demanded.  The  upper  range  of  uniform  smaller  arches  leads 
up  to  the  quiet  cadence  of  the  sky-line,  like  Doric  triglyphs 
intermediate  between  columns  and  cornice.  Much  the  same 
problems  as  in  the  aqueducts  recur  in  the  highway  bridges, 
and  the  same  division  of  types  recurs.  The  bridges  over  wide 
rivers  with  low  banks  have  a  uniform  series  of  arches,  some- 
times with  the  piers  lightened  by  minor  arches  supporting 
the  roadway,  as  in  the  Pons  Mulvius  at  Rome;  those  over 
deep  ravines  have  a  single  arch  or  several  of  sharply  graded 
size,  as  at  Narni.  The  ends  of  the  principal  pier  might  be 
decorated  with  a  monumental  arch  or  a  small  shrine. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  133 

Monuments:  the  column;  the  trophy.  The  desire  of  the 
Romans  for  military  glorification  early  caused  them  to 
appropriate  the  Greek  votive  column  for  monumental  use. 
To  commemorate  a  naval  victory,  Duilius,  in  260  B.C.,  erected 
a  column  decorated  with  the  prows  of  captured  ships,  a  rostral 
column,  as  it  was  called.  The  greatest  of  the  columnar 
monuments  were  those  of  Trajan  and  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
Faustina,  each  consisting  of  a  marble  Doric  shaft  on  a  square 
sculptured  pedestal.  They  carried,  at  a  height  of  over  one 
hundred  feet,  gilded  statues  of  their  founders,  and  were 
decorated  with  continuous  spiral  reliefs  celebrating  their 
campaigns.  From  the  Greeks  also  came  the  custom  of  erecting 
on  the  battlefield  a  trophy  of  victory,  composed  of  armor  and 
weapons,  or  imitated  from  them  in  stone.  The  possibility 
of  a  further  monumental  development  of  the  trophy  lay  in  its 
pedestal,  which  was  elaborated  to  an  even  greater  extent  than 
in  the  Hellenistic  examples.  In  the  trophy  of  Augustus,  near 
Monaco,  a  circular  peristyle  in  two  stories  on  a  tall  square 
basement,  and  with  a  steep  conical  roof,  supports  the  trophy 
proper  at  a  great  height. 

The  arch.  A  more  characteristically  native  monumental 
type  was  the  commemorative  or  "triumphal"  arch,  originally 
of  temporary  character  and  perishable  materials,  erected  to 
welcome  a  returning  victor  as  he  passed  through  Rome  in 
triumphal  procession.  In  the  imperial  period  such  arches, 
made  permanent  in  stone,  were  used  for  various  commemora- 
tive purposes,  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  The  earliest 
examples,  from  the  time  of  Augustus,  show  the  arch  framed, 
as  in  the  Tabularium  and  the  theaters,  by  two  columns  and 
an  entablature,  perhaps  with  a  pediment.  In  any  case  there 
was  a  pedestal  or  attic  above,  serving  as  a  support  for  statues. 
Soon  a  second  column  was  added  on  either  side  of  the  original 
pair,  inclosing  a  rectangular  field — the  classic  instance  being 
the  Arch  of  Titus  in  Rome  (Fig.  51).  The  columnar 
apparatus,  here  frankly  decorative,  is  handled  with  the  greatest 
mastery  of  form.  Emphasis  is  given  the  central  opening  by 
the  projecting  architrave,  uniting  the  inner  columns  and 
casting  a  deep  shadow  over  the  relief  sculpture  in  the  triangular 
spandrels  below.  The  silhouette  is  enriched  by  the  breaking 
of  the  entablature  about  the  corner  columns,  while  they  are 


134        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

united  with  their  neighbors  by  the  simple  pedestal  which  quiets 
the  variety  above  and  rests  firmly  on  the  earth.  As  the 
necessary  completion  above,  one  must  imagine  the  quadriga, 
a  bronze  chariot  with  four  horses  and  sculptured  figures.  A 
further  development  of  the  monumental  arch  was  the  widening 
of  the  side  bays  and  the  insertion  of  subordinate  arches  in 
them,  as  in  the  Arch  of  Domitian,  near  the  Colosseum,  later 
appropriated  by  Constantine.  Here  pedestal  and  entablature 


FIG.   51 — THE   ARCH  OF  TITUS 

break  about  all  four  columns,  and  the  unity  depends  on  the 
rhythmical  symmetry  of  the  arches.  Later,  and  in  the 
provinces,  the  designers  of  arches  sought  to  exhaust  the 
possibilities  of  combination  'of  the  arch  and  column. 

Gates.  The  motives  of  the  triumphal  arch  were  also  carried 
over  to  the  city  gates,  which  had  often  in  the  days  of  the 
Roman  peace  rather  a  symbolical  than  a  military  significance. 
Even  a  gate  which  retained  its  fortified  character,  like  the 
Porta  Nigra  in  Trier-  on  the  German  frontier,  was  given  a 
monumental  expression  by  columnar  adornment  (Fig.  52). 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE 


The  main  openings  and  the  windows  of  towers  and  galleries 
are  enframed  as  in  the  Colosseum,  but  with  greater  sternness 
and  sobriety. 

Grave  monuments.     The   same   instinct   that   created   the 
commemorative  columns  and  arches  shows  itself  in  the  grave 


FIG.    52 — TRIER.      PORTA   NIGRA 

monuments,  which  in  imperial  times  took  on  a  magnificence 
even  greater  than  in  Hellenistic  Greece.  Both  burial  and 
incineration  were  practised,  and  richly  decorated  urns  and 
sarcophagi  were  employed.  These  were  but  secondary  in 
many  cases,  however,  to  large  constructions  containing  the 
tomb  chamber,  and  taking  the  most  varied  forms.  Patrons 
and  artists  drew  their  suggestions  from  the  tombs  of  every 
people  with  whom  the  Romans  had  come  in  contact — the 
Asiatic  and  Etruscan  tumulus,  the  Egyptian  pyramid,  the 
Greek  peristylar  monument  and  exedra,  the  temple,  both 
6 


1 36        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

rectangular  and  circular.  All  these  appeared  in  rich  array 
lining  the  streets  which  led  across  the  Campagna  from 
the  gates  of  the  city.  Only  in  special  cases,  such  as 
those  of  the  emperors,  was  interment  within  the  walls 
permitted. 

The  tumulus  type.     It  was  the  tumulus,  the  primitive  mound 
of  earth,  girt  at  the  base  by  a  circular  wall  of  stone,  which 


FIG.  53 — ROME.     MAUSOLEUM  OF  HADRIAN.     (RESTORED  BY  VAUDREMER) 


was  selected  by  Augustus  for  his  mausoleum,  erected  on  the 
Campus  Martius  in  28-26  B.C.  In  this  and  other  Roman 
examples,  however,  the  cylindrical  substructure  is  developed 
into  the  principal  member,  and  itself  raised  on  a  massive  square 
pedestal  after  the  manner  of  the  Hellenistic  circular  monu- 
ments. The  mausoleum  of  Augustus  had  a  marble  drum  of 
three  hundred  feet  diameter,  bearing  a  cone  of  earth  planted 
with  cypress  trees  and  crowned  with  a  colossal  statue  of  the 
emperor.  Even  more  splendid  was  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian 
(Fig.  53),  which  still  subsists  in  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  137 

Its  wall  was  decorated  with  an  order,  its  cone  was  of  marble 
steps  surmounted  by  a  quadriga. 

The  temple  type.  In  the  erection  of  tombs  of  temple  form 
the  rectangular  type  was  less  employed  than  the  circular. 
The  most  elaborate  was  the  mausoleum  of  Diocletian  in  his 
palace  at  Spalato,  about  300  A.D.,  the  domed  interior  richly 
membered  with  superposed  columns,  the  octagonal  exterior 
with  a  peristyle  and  a  projecting  portico.  As  in  other  tombs 
of  this  class,  the  cella  was  used  for  memorial  services,  the 
sarcophagus  was  deposited  in  a  second  chamber  below.  A 
notable  step  was  taken  in  the  tomb  of  Constantia,  the  daughter 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  who  died  in  354.  The  wall  on 
which  the  dome  rests  is  broken  through,  and  instead  of  the 
arched  niches  there  are  deep  arches  supported  on  pairs  of 
columns  united  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  by  an  entablature. 
The  central  space  is  surrounded  by  a  continuous  aisle,  the 
clerestory  of  the  basilica  is  carried  over  into  a  circular  building, 
creating  new  spatial  effects  of  which  Christian  architecture 
was  to  make  great  use  (Fig.  71). 

Domestic  architecture.  The  Roman  town  house  may  best 
be  studied  at  Pompeii,  where  the  debris  of  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius,  79  A.D.,  has  preserved  almost  intact  a  great  number 
of  dwellings  of  every  class,  ranging  over  a  period  of  three 
hundred  years.  The  type  of  plan  was  already  essentially 
fixed  in  the  second  century  B.C.,  and  varied  less  with  time  than 
with  the  means  of  the  owner  and  the  exigencies  of  the  site. 
The  poorer  folk,  many  of  whom  in  Rome  were  crowded  in  high 
tenements,  here  lived  over  their  shops  along  the  street,  or  had 
a  small  atrium  and  a  couple  of  rooms  of  their  own.  The 
middle  class  had  still  to  content  themselves  with  the  arrange- 
ments which  served  for  the  best  in  the  earlier  days  of  the 
republic — an  atrium  and  surrounding  rooms  with  a  small 
walled  garden  at  the  rear.  The  entrance  was  by  a  narrow 
passage  between  rented  shops.  The  atrium  was  a  large 
oblong  room  with  a  roof  sloping  inward  to  a  central  opening, 
generally  of  the  Tuscan  type,  supported  on  beams  from  wall 
to  wall.  Primitively  this  had  been  the  principal  living-room, 
containing  the  hearth,  the  smoke  of  which  escaped  through  a 
small  opening  in  the  roof.  With  the  transition  to  urban 
conditions  the  size  of  the  opening  was  increased  to  light  the 


138        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


surrounding  rooms,  with  the  result  that  more  sheltered  living- 
rooms  had  to  be  provided.  To  left  and  right  of  the  atrium 
were  small  sleeping-rooms,  cubiculce,  opening  from  it.  Behind 
these,  forming  lateral  extensions  of  the  atrium,  were  two 
alcoves  or  ales,  put  to  various  uses,  survivals  perhaps  of  the 

day  when  the  house  stood 
isolated,  and  light  could  be 
introduced  from  the  sides. 

\ At  the  rear  was  the  tablinum, 

the  reception-room,  used 
also  in  smaller  houses  as  a 
family  living-room.  A 
second  story,  with  minor 
rooms,  was  sometimes  added. 
Larger  houses.  In  the 
houses  of  a  wealthier  class 
not  only  was  the  atrium  en- 
larged, but  the  entire  ap- 
paratus of  a  Hellenistic 
house  on  the  Delian  model, 
with  peristyle,  exedras,  and 
triclinium,  or  dining-room 
with  three  couches,  was 
added  to  the  rear.  Four 
columns  were  often  added 
at  the  corners  of  the  atrium 
opening,  creating  the  tetra- 
style  type  of  which  Vitruvius 
speaks,  or  even  more  than 
four,  making  the  room  like 
a  Greek  court,  as  appears 
FIG.  54 — POMPEII.  HOUSE  OF  PANSA.  in  the  name,  Corinthian 
PLAN  atrium,  then  applied  to  it. 

The  family  came  more  to 
leave  the  original  atrium  to 
clients  and  visitors,  and  to  withdraw  to  the  rooms  surround- 
ing the  peristyle,  which  were  supplemented  perhaps  by  a 
second  atrium,  beside  the  first,  about  which  the  domestic 
apartments  were  grouped.  The  most  elaborate  houses  filled 
an  entire  block,  with  a  more  extensive  garden  behind  the 


{A)  Atrium 
B)  Impluvium 


(C)  Peristyle 

(D)  (Ecus 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  139 

peristyle.  Such  a  one,  showing  a  high  development  of  the 
Pompeian  house  in  differentiation  of  functions  and  guarding 
of  privacy,  is  the  so-called  House  of  Pansa  (Fig.  54). 

Decoration  of  houses.  To  the  exterior  the  houses  turned  a 
blank,  plastered  wall,  with  few  small  windows,  perhaps  a 
richer  door  frame.  The  interior  walls,  on  the  other  hand, 
where  they  could  not  be  of  costly  marbles,  were  richly  painted, 
at  first  in  imitation  of  these,  later  with  mythological  scenes, 
in  a  setting  of  attenuated  architectural  forms  which  were 
suggested  in  the  first  instance  by  the  architectural  decorations 
of  the  stage. 

Villas.  In  more  intimate  relation  to  the  landscape  were  the 
villas  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  with  terraced  courtyards, 
gardens,  and  orchards.  Others,  less  formal,  served  as  retreats 
in  the  country  or  by  the  seaside.  The  larger  villas  went  far 
beyond  the  satisfaction  of  practical  needs,  with  luxurious 
provision  for  dining,  bathing,  exercise,  and  amusement. 
Especially  was  this  true  of  the  imperial  villas,  of  which  the 
villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli  gives  the  best  idea  (Fig.  55).  It 
included,  besides  the  living  quarters  and  festal  suites,  reproduc- 
tions of  the  most  famous  buildings  of  Greece  and  of  the  Orient, 
capriciously  strewn  over  a  picturesque  topography.  There' 
were  two  theaters,  libraries,  a  stadium,  thermae,  a  so-called 
academy,  and  a  long  canal,  bordered  by  porticoes  and 
terminated  by  a  great  niche,  in  imitation  of  Canopus,  a  suburb 
of  Alexandria.  The  imitations  seem  to  have  been  less  literal 
than  suggestive,  however,  as  all  was  executed  in  Roman 
technique  of  brick  and  concrete  and  designed  with  a  facility 
in  the  combination  of  vaults  and  the  composition  of  plans 
which  is  purely  Roman. 

The  palaces  of  the  C&sars.  The  palaces  of  the  emperors  in 
Rome,  established  on  the  Palatine  Hill  (Fig.  56),  owe  less  to 
the  Roman  house  than  to  the  palaces  of  eastern  capitals  such 
as  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Pergamon.  Begun  by  Augustus, 
they  were  extended  by  Tiberius  and  many  later  emperors, 
especially  Domitian,  who  built  the  great  series  of  state  apart- 
ments in  the  center.  Caligula  sought  to  connect  the  Palatine 
with  the  Capitol  by  a  bridge,  to  secure  easier  access  to  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus;  Nero  united  the  imperial 
gardens  on  the  Esquiline  with  the  Palatine  by  building  in  the 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


141 


intervening  valley,  where  the  Colosseum  later  stood,  his 
Golden  House  with  its  luxurious  park.  Though  these  exten- 
sions were  not  permanent, the  Palatine  itself  was  covered  with 
magnificent  buildings,  including  several  temples.  The  state 


FIG.  56 — ROME.     PALACES  OF  THE  CAESARS.     PLAN.     (RESTORED  BY 

DEGLANE) 


apartments  formed  an  oblong  block  fronted  with  a  long 
colonnade  toward  the  central  area.  In  the  center  of  the  fagade 
was  the  audience-room,  having  a  barrel  vault  a  hundred  feet 
in  span,  the  walls  richly  adorned  with  columns  and  niches. 
To  right  and  left  were  the  basilica  or  imperial  tribunal,  the 
lararium  or  private  chapel.  Behind  this  suite  lay  a  square 
peristyle,  at  the  rear  a  triclinium,  opening  into  supplementary 


1 42         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

rooms.  The  private  apartments  of  the  emperor  occupied 
another  block  centering  on  a  court ;  beyond  them  was  the  so- 
called  Stadium,  an  inclosed  garden  surrounded  by  porticoes 
and  dominated  by  a  great  vaulted  exedra. 

The  palace  of  Diocletian  at  S potato.  A  very  different 
arrangement  is  that  of  the  Palace  of  Diocletian  (Fig.  57)  at 
Spalato  in  Dalmatia,  on  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  to  which 
the  emperor  retired  in  305  on  laying  down  his  authority.  The 


r'   •"'  ' 

J^- 


FIG.  57 — SPALATO.      PALACE  OF  DIOCLETIAN.       (RESTORED  BY  HEBRARD) 


security  of  the  empire  was  no  longer  certain,  the  palace  followed 
the  lines  of  a  fortified  camp.  It  forms  a  rectangular  walled 
inclosure  quartered  by  two  colonnaded  streets  at  right  angles, 
with  gates  and  towers  at  the  middle  points  of  the  landward 
sides.  Along  the  seaward  face  runs  a  long  colonnade  behind 
which  are  the  imperial  apartments,  also  reached  from  a 
monumental  vestibule  at  the  head  of  the  longitudinal  street. 
Next  them,  fronting  each  other  in  balancing  inclosures  which 
filled  the  remainder  of  this  half  of  the  palace,  are  a  temple, 
serving  as  the  imperial  chapel,  and  the  mausoleum  for  the 
emperor.  Beyond  the  transverse  streets  are  quarters  for 
service  and  for  the  guards;  around  the  outer  walls  are  store- 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  143 

chambers,  reached  from  a  passage  which  makes  the  circuit. 
In  the  forms  of  detail  eastern  influeiice  is  seen,  and  the  develop- 
ments of  late  Roman  architecture  in  new  relations  of  arch  and 
column  appear  most  clearly  (Fig.  59). 

Ensembles,  town  planning.  The  Romans  of  imperial  times 
were  not  satisfied  even  with  the  extended  and  complex 
symmetry  which  they  had  given  to  individual  units  such  as 
the  palaces,  thermae,  and  fora,  but  sought  to  organize  their 
relations  to  one  another  and  to  give  the  whole  city  a  coherent 
plan.  Rome  as  a  whole  was  too  vast  and  too  consecrated 
for  this,  but  in  certain  portions  a  unification  was  effected. 
Thus  a  splendid  facade,  ingeniously  planned,  was  built  before 
the  irregular  buildings  of  the  Palatine,  to  give  them  a  sym- 
metrical aspect  from  the  Circus  Maximus.  More  fundamental 
was  the  consistent  treatment  of  the  island  in  the  Tiber,  to 
suggest  a  vast  galley,  with  prow  and  stern.  Its  buildings 
were  disposed  about  a  series  of  connected  courts,  artfully 
devised  to  mask  the  actual  irregularity  of  the  plan.  On  a  far 
greater  scale  were  the  harbor  works  and  warehouses  of  Ostia, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  of  which  the  hexagonal  Port  of 
Trajan  surrounded  by  uniform  buildings  was  the  most 
systematic.  Newly  founded  towns,  especially  those  of  a 
semi -military  character  like  Augusta  Praetoria  (Aosta),  in  the 
foothills  of  the  Alps,  and  Thamugadi  (Timgad)  in  Africa  were 
laid  out  in  rectangular  form  bisected  by  the  principal  streets 
with  others  parallel  to  them.  They  marked  a  formal  progress 
over  Hellenistic  towns  in  the  regularity  of  their  outline  as  well 
as  of  their  minor  subdivisions. 

Individual  forms.  Although  the  individual  forms  of  Roman 
architecture  fall  behind  their  combinations  in  interest,  as 
behind  the  forms  of  the  Greeks  in  originality,  they  were 
by  no  means  slavish  imitations.  In  many  instances  a 
further  formal  development  took  place,  in  others,  new 
structural  functions  produced  new  or  modified  expressions. 
For  purely  utilitarian  purposes,  post,  lintel,  and  arch  were 
used  without  ornament  in  a  manner  as  simple  and  as 
effective  as  the  primitive  system  of  the  waiting-hall  of  the 
pyramid  of  Khafre  in  Egypt.  In  Roman  Africa  and  Syria 
are  many  instances  of  square  monolithic  piers  with  square 
lintels,  repeated  perhaps  in  several  stories,  which,  like  the 


i44        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

arches  of  the  aqueducts,  have  no  other  treatment  than  the 
constructive  membering. 

Walls,  doors,  windows.  The  problems  of  a  richer  expression 
for  the  wall  and  for  the  post  and  lintel  had  already  been  solved 
in  an  exemplary  way  by  the  Greeks,  whose  solutions  were  too 
accessible  and  too  authoritative  to  be  ignored.  In  these 
features  the  innovations  of  the  Romans  were  relatively  minor. 
They  made  more  frequent  employment  of  grooved  or  rusticated 
joints,  of  cap  and  base  moldings,  following  the  Hellenistic 
tendencies.  The  profiles  of  their  moldings  were  less  studied 
and  subtle,  conforming  more  closely  to  arcs  of  circles  than  to 
elliptical  arcs  and  other  conic  sections.  Doors  and  windows 
followed  late  Greek  examples  in  having  a  molded  architrave 
of  stone.  A  frieze  and  cornice  were  often  added,  sometimes 
elaborated  by  the  addition  of  curved  brackets  or  consoles,  or 
of  a  pediment.  For  windows  and  niches  an  even  richer  treat- 
ment was  devised,  the  tabernacle  of  two  free  standing  columns 
with  an  entablature  and  pediment — triangular  or  segmental — 
best  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  Pantheon  (Fig.  42). 

The  Doric  order.  The  Doric  order,  whether  in  its  Greek  or 
its  Tuscan  form,  v/as  little  used  in  imperial  times,  except  in  the 
lower  stories  of  buildings  with  superposed  orders,  where  its 
relative  massiveness  still  gave  it  the  preference.  An  occasional 
example  shows  the  echinus  of  the  capital  ornamented  with 
egg  and  dart  and  the  other  members  multiplied  and  enriched. 
The  difficulties  created  by  the  corner  triglyph  were  overcome 
in  imperial  times  by  placing  it  on  the  axis  of  the  column  in 
spite  of  its  leaving  a  fragment  of  metope  beyond,  thus 
sacrificing  functional  expression  to  formal  regularity.  In  the 
amphitheaters,  with  their  continuous  unbroken  sweep,  this 
problem  did  not  arise. 

The  Ionic  order.  The  Ionic  order  followed  the  precedents 
of  Hermogenes  in  having  always  a  frieze,  and  a  capital  with 
relatively  small  volutes  and  a  low  connecting  band,  which  in 
Roman  examples  finally  lost  all  its  curvature.  The  Attic  base 
was  preferred.  The  angular  capital  originated  by  Iktinos, 
with  volutes  on  all  four  sides  projecting  diagonally,  was 
frequently  employed  where  the  colonnade  had  corners  to 
turn. 

The  Corinthian  order.     The  Corinthian  order  was  the  one 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


which  comported  best  with  the  love  of  magnificence  which 
the  imperial  Romans  shared  with  the  Hellenistic  monarchs, 
and  was  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  later  monuments. 
The  scheme  of  capital  generally  preferred  was  that  of  the 
example  from  Epidaurus, 
with  two  alternating 
rows  of  eight  leaves  each, 
but  the  spirit  of  the  ex- 
ecution was  bolder,  the 
leafage  more  luxuriant. 
Each  building  still  fur- 
nished a  problem  for  it- 
self and  showed  its  own 
design  of  capital.  Among 
the  many  superb  ex- 
amples, that  of  the 
temple  of  Castor  and 
Pollux  in  the  Forum 
Romanum  may  be  given 
as  representative  (Fig. 
58).  A  second  common 
type  was  that  of  the 
Temple  of  Vesta  at 
Tivoli,  with  the  upper 
leaves  close  down  on  the 
lower,  and  with  a 
crinkled,  parsley -like 
serration.  A  variant  of 
the  Corinthian  was  the 
so-called  Composite 
capital  in  which  the 
echinus  and  diagonal 
scrolls  of  an  angular 

Ionic  capital  were  placed  above  the  rows  of  leaves,  as  in  the 
Arch  of  Titus.  This  attempt  to  secure  still  greater  richness  in- 
volved a  sacrifice  of  the  organic  connection  of  scrolls  and  leaf- 
age in  the  original.  In  the  Corinthian  entablature  the  dentils 
became  secondary  to  great  brackets  or  modillions,  sometimes 
treated  as  molded  blocks,  sometimes  as  scrolls  decorated  with 
leafage,  as  in  the  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux.  In  the  temples 


FIG.  58 — ROME.  CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL 
AND  ENTABLATURE  FROM  THE  TEMPLE 
OF  CASTOR  AND  POLLUX.  (RESTORED 
CAST  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM) 


1 46        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

at  Baalbek  there  are  consoles  in  the  frieze  as  well.  Entablature 
and  capital  alike  took  part  in  the  stylistic  developments  of 
the  imperial  period — the  passion  for  decoration  of  the  Flavians, 
the  puristic  reaction  under  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines.  The 
temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  141  A.D.,  has  neither 
modillions  nor  dentils. 

Pilasters.  The  Roman  counterpart  of  the  anta  was  the 
pilaster,  which,  instead  of  being  studiously  distinguished  from 
the  column  in  width  of  side  and  profile  of  capital,  was  imitated 
directly  from  it.  Late  Hellenistic  and  republican  buildings 
show  the  pilaster  used  not  only  to  respond  to  the  columns  of  a 
temple  portico  but  to  form  a  similar  termination  at  the  rear 
corners  of  the  cella,  and  to  continue  the  rhythm  of  the  spacing 
between  in  the  same  manner  that  engaged  columns  were  used. 
Pilasters  were  used  also,  instead  of  engaged  columns,  in  various 
buildings  of  the  empire  where  lack  of  means  or  a  desire  for  less 
accentuation  suggested  the  substitution. 
i.The.  arch.  In  the  formal  elaboration  of  the  arch  and  its 
combination  with  the  column  the  Romans  had  new  problems, 
the  solution  of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  occupied  the  whole 
course  of  their  history.  After  the  simple  treatment  of  republi- 
can times  in  which  a  projecting  molded  course  of  stone  was 
added  at  the  outside  of  the  voussoirs,  the  voussoirs  themselves 
were  molded  to  form  an  archivolt,  a  ring  having  a  section 
like  that  of  the  columnar  architrave.  In  a  similar  way  the 
impost  was  given  a  form  like  a  capital  or  bed  molding,  with 
members  suited  to  the  function  of  support,  and  the  keystone 
was  often  treated  as  a  console.  The  enframement  of  the  arch 
by  column  and  lintel,  although  characteristic  of  the  central 
period  of  Roman  art,  was  not  the  final  scheme.  In  the 
Pantheon  the  entablature  itself  was  used  as  the  impost  of  an 
arch;  at  Palmyra  it  was  bent  into  an  archivolt  spanning  the 
wide  central  opening  of  a  portico.  In  the  thermae  a  fragment 
of  entablature  served  to  lengthen  the  column  and  give  a  larger 
bearing  for  the  springing  of  a  vault;  in  Syria  and  at  Spalato 
this  fragment  was  reduced  to  a  mere  molded  stilt-block,  and 
finally  omitted  altogether,  so  that  the  arches  came  down 
directly  on  the  heads  of  the  columns  (Fig.  59).  The  column 
thus  gradually  attained  a  relation  with  the  arch  as  structural 
as  its  original  relation  with  the  lintel. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


Wall  membering.  The  relation  of  the  columnar  form  to 
wall  membering  proceeded  in  the  opposite  direction  from  the 
common  starting-point;  the  contradiction  of  expressions  was 
reconciled  by  removing  every  structural  suggestion  and 
leaving  the  decoration  undisguised.  In  the  arch  of  Domitian 
(Constantine)  and  in  the  Forum  Transitorium,  begun  by 


Colosseum       Pa.n1hepn        Thermo?        Spalato         Spalato         Spaloto 
noinan  arch  order  Cen1r<vl  niche    of  Caracal/a.    Cenlral  arch  Porla  ajjrea  Slreel  a 
cTOAJ).  C.125AJ).          C.M5A.D.  c.MOAD 

FIG.    59 — DEVELOPMENT    IN    THE    RELATIONS    OF    ARCH    AND    COLUMN    IN 
ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE 


Domitian,  the  columns,  instead  of  being  engaged  against  the 
wall,  stand  free  in  front  of  it,  supporting  merely  an  end  of 
entablature  and  an  attic  or  a  statue  over  it.  In  the  free 
composition  of  the  stage  backgrounds  this  tendency  went  still 
further;  the  whole  apparatus  of  colonnettes  and  tabernacles 
was  obviously  a  mere  decorative  application.  Tabernacle 
work  of  this  sort  came  more  and  more  to  supersede,  for  the 
enrichment  of  facades,  the  treatment  with  engaged  columns 
of  the  full  height  of  the  wall.  In  the  north  gate  at  Spalato, 
finally,  the  niches  and  colonnettes  are  no  longer  carried  down 
to  the  ground,  but  are  supported  merely  on  projecting  brackets 
or  corbels.  Meanwhile  other  forces  had  been  at  work.  The 
fondness  for  Greek  art  in  the  second  century  led  to  the  omission 
of  any  columnar  subdivision  of  the  wall  in  certain  cases.  The 
temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  although  prostyle,  has 
pilasters  only  at  the  corners  of  the  cella.  The  use  of  brick  and 
concrete,  plastered  over  with  stucco,  in  vast  constructions 


148        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

such  as  the  thermae  and  the  Villa  of  Hadrian,  encouraged  the 
limitation  of  membering  to  the  openings,  where  columns  and 
pilasters  fulfilled  their  original  functions.  The  tendency  was 
thus,  by  various  paths,  toward  frankness  of  constructive  ex- 
pression, in  spite  of  conditions  far  more  complex  than  those  in 
which  the  Greeks  had  achieved  their  early  structural  purism. 

Elements  of  plan  and  space.  For  elements  of  plan  and  space 
the  Romans  drew  both  on  Greece  and  on  the  Orient ;  they  later 
made  important  contributions  of  their  own.  The  temple 
cella  and  the  basilica  with  longitudinal  colonnades,  the 
exterior  peristyle,  were  of  Greek  origin;  the  peristylar  hall  and 
court,  the  clerestory,  of  Oriental  origin.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  forms  suggested  by  vault  construction,  the  apse,  the  circle, 
or  polygon,  with  abutting  niches,  the  groin-vaulted  rectangle 
with  side  compartments,  were  Roman  in  development.  In 
one  or  two  cases  a  dome  was  placed  over  a  square  room,  in  the 
form  of  a  circumscribed  hemisphere  intersected  by  the  planes 
of  the  four  walls  in  the  manner  later  familiar  in  the  Byzantine 
domical  vaults.  The  forms  of  vaults  were  ordinarily  kept 
rigidly  geometrical,  and,  in  consequence,  they  often  determined 
the  precise  proportions  of  the  rooms  below.  Thus  with 
groined  vaults,  in  which  cylindrical  surfaces  were  employed, 
the  line  of  intersection  fell  in  a  plane  only  when  the  two 
cylinders  were  of  equal  diameter.  As  a  result  the  Romans 
employed  them  by  preference  only  over  square  bays.  The 
vaults  first  made  possible  a  plastic  handling  of  interior  space, 
in  which  wall  and  ceiling  blend  in  coherent  unity,  and  adjacent 
elements  open  freely  into  one  another.  It  was  characteristic 
of  the  Romans  to  emphasize  strongly  the  predominance  of 
the  central  element  of  a  group,  the  surrounding  units  being 
rather  shallow  bays  than  long  arms,  having  themselves  but 
minor  subdivisions.  A  favorite  treatment  was  with  niches 
alternately  square  and  semicircular  in  plan. 

Architectural  treatment  of  vaults.  The  vaulted  interior 
involved  new  problems  in  detail  and  exterior  treatment  as 
well  as  in  construction.  The  vault,  like  the  arch,  usually 
received  an  impost  which  was  either  a  full  entablature, 
supported  by  an  order  which  enriched  the  wall  below,  or  else 
a  string  course  composed  somewhat  on  the  lines  of  a  cornice. 
The  vaulting  surfaces  themselves  were  generally  unbroken  by 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  149 

any  projecting  ribs,  having  merely  a  recessed  pattern  of 
coffers  (Fig.  42).  Externally,  barrel  vaults  were  generally 
covered  by  gable  roofs.  Groined  vaults  at  large  scale,  as  in 
the  tepidaria,  had  lateral  gables  over  each  bay,  intersecting 
the  main  longitudinal  roof  and  producing  valleys  by  which 
the  rain  was  discharged  over  each  pier.  The  tendency  was 
increasingly  to  rest  the  tiles  of  the  roofs  directly  on  the  massive 
shell  of  the  vaults,  fashioned  in  inclined  planes  to  receive  them. 
In  the  case  of  large  domes,  like  that  of  the  Pantheon,  the  curved 
form  was  retained  on  the  exterior,  the  upper  portion  being  a 
saucer-like  zone  girded  by  several  monumental  steps,  which 
carried  the  visual  support  to  the  high  exterior  wall. 

Construction  in  brick  and  concrete.  For  the  vast  under- 
takings at  the  capital,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  where 
stone  was  not  rendered  by  natural  conditions  the  inevitable 
building  material,  methods  of  construction  were  developed 
which  lent  themselves  admirably  to  the  scale  of  operations 
and  to  the  character  of  the  labor  supply.  A  building  of  the 
extent  of  the  thermae  of  Caracalla  could  not  be  erected  wholly 
by  skilled  craftsmen  as,  relatively,  the  Parthenon  had  been, 
nor  could  it  be  built  wholly  of  marble.  The  methods  used  in 
the  mass  of  the  construction  had  to  be  adapted  to  large  forces 
of  slaves  and  unskilled  men,  directed  by  trained  superin- 
tendents. These  conditions  were  happily  fulfilled  by  the 
employment  of  brick,  with  mortar  often  so  thick  as  to  produce 
practically  a  concrete,  or  of  concrete  in  which  the  cement 
itself  was  the  essential  element,  binding  an  aggregate  of  loose 
and  small  materials  into  a  monolith.  The  volcanic  pozzolana 
furnished  a  cement  which  left  nothing  to  be  desired  in  strength 
and  quickness  of  setting. 

Wall  construction.  The  Roman  bricks  were  very  large, 
usually  square,  about  a  foot  on  a  side,  but  often  triangular, 
to  secure  a  better  bond  between  face  and  backing.  In  some 
walls  the  bricks  were  left  to  form  the  final  exterior  surface,  but 
more  usually  they  were  covered  with  a  coating  of  stucco  or 
a  veneer  of  marble  slabs.  Walls  of  concrete  were  constructed 
by  depositing  or  pouring  the  mixture,  in  a  semi-liquid  state, 
into  temporary  forms  built  of  wood,  which  were  devised  so 
that  as  much  as  possible  of  the  lumber  could  be  used  repeatedly. 
They  were  usually  faced  with  brick  or  stone  fragments  in 


ISO        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

some  form,  and  then  generally  coated  or  veneered  in  the  same 
manner  as  brick  walls.  The  kinds  of  facing  received  special 
names  according  to  the  pattern  produced  on  the  surface — 
opus  reticulatum  for  small  squares  of  stone  standing  on  their 
corners  in  diagonal  lines,  opus  spicatum  for  kernel-shaped 
fragments  in  herringbone  pattern — while  the  general  name  of 
opus  incertum  was  reserved  for  a  treatment  with  fragments 
of  no  regular  form.  Bonding  courses  of  brick  were  often  laid 
at  intervals  to  tie  the  facings  firmly  to  the  body  of  the  wall, 
and  angles  were  sometimes  reinforced  with  brick  or  stone  in 
the  form  of  quoins,  or  blocks  of  alternating  length  toothed 
into  the  mass. 

Vault  construction.  In  the  construction  of  vaults  the  use 
of  small  materials  in  thick  mortar  presents  constructive 
advantages  greater  even  than  in  the  construction  of  walls,  for 
it  obviates  greater  difficulties  in  the  individual  shaping  of  the 
elements.  A  vault  of  concrete  alone,  however,  lacks  any 
arching  action  until  it  has  set,  and  bears  with  its  full  weight 
on  the  temporary  wooden  form  or  centering,  which  has  to  be 
correspondingly  cumbersome  and  wasteful.  The  Romans 
worked  to  avoid  this  by  constructing  first,  over  light  centering, 
a  framework  of  brick  arches,  with  projections  or  cells  to  secure 
a  good  bond  with  the  concrete,  a  great  part  of  the  weight  of 
which  was  thus  removed  from  the  wooden  supports  (Fig.  60). 
In  groined  vaults  of  this  sort  ribs  of  brick  reinforced  the  chief 
constructive  lines;  in  domes  they  followed  principally  the 
elements  of  the  surface.  Once  the  concrete  had  thoroughly 
hardened,  of  course,  such  ribs  of  brick  had  fulfilled  their 
purpose  and  no  longer  served  any  special  structural  function, 
being  merged  in  the  mass  of  the  vault.  Coffers  were  even  cut 
through  them  without  affecting  stability.  A  second  principle 
was  sometimes  followed  which  did  not  demand  even  an 
unbroken  surface  in  the  centering,  but  required  merely  a  light 
form  of  slats  spaced  openly.  Over  these  was  laid  a  layer  of 
flat  tiles,  touching  each  other  only  at  their  edges  yet  strongly 
cemented;  over  these  another  and  perhaps  another,  forming 
a  skin  of  no  great  thickness  but  of  surprising  strength  (Fig.  61). 
This  supported  the  concrete  placed  upon  it  until  it  had 
hardened,  and  formed .  a  permanent  interior  facing  to  the 
vault. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


Ornament.  In  their  enrichment  of  moldings  and  surfaces 
the  Romans  followed,  as  in  so  many  other  matters,  the 
tendencies  initiated  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks.  The  moldings, 
like  those  of  the  Greek  Ionic  order,  were  carved  in  marble  with 
decorative  forms  suggested  by  their  profiles.  The  egg  and 
dart  and  other  familiar  forms  recur,  made  fuller  and  rounder 
in  harmony  with  the  moldings  themselves,  and  more  luxuriant 


FIG.  60 — ROMAN  CELLULAR  VAULT. 
(CHOISY) 


FIG.  6l — ROMAN  LAMINATED 
VAULT.     (CHOISY) 


in  accordance  with  Roman  taste.  In  place  of  the  painted 
polychromy  of  the  Greeks  came  a  polychromy  of  richly 
colored  marbles,  especially  in  interiors,  which  was  more 
sumptuous  and  had  the  advantage  of  permanence.  Shafts  of 
columns,  pavements  and  walls,  exhibited  variegated  and 
precious  materials  employed  not  only  with  mastery  of  pattern 
and  color,  but  with  discriminating  avoidance  of  structural 
pretense.  Dark  and  richly  veined  shafts  were  left  unfluted  to 
exhibit  the  beauty  of  their  material.  POT  the  veneering  of 
brick  or  concrete  walls  marble  blocks  were  sawn  thin  to  make 
the  most  of  limited  material,  and  large  slabs  were  applied  with 
a  freedom  of  jointing  and  an  absence  of  bond  that  gave  no 
false  suggestion  of  ashlar  masonry. 

Local  variety.  Although  the  official  art  of  the  capital  was 
diffused  through  the  empire  in  much  the  same  way  as  the 
official  Latin  tongue,  this  did  not  preclude  the  existence  of 
provincial  varieties  or  dialects,  or  the  maintenance  in  the  more 
civilized  East  of  a  Greek  tradition  which  held  its  own  with 
Roman  developments. 

The  West.    Provence.    Germany.     In  the  West  it  was  less 


152         A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

any  survival  of  pre-existing  styles  than  the  influence  of  the 
available  materials  which  resulted  in  special  characteristics 
in  certain  localities,  and  these  were  naturally  rather  in  matters 
of  construction  than  in  matters  of  form.  Thus  in  Provence, 
the  Rhone  valley  region  in  the  south  of  France,  an  abundance 
of  fine  limestone  and  an  absence  of  clay  gave  rise  to  many 
technical  expedients.  In  the  lower  arcade  of  the  amphitheater 
at  Aries  a  flat  ceiling  of  long  slabs  is  substituted  for  the  usual 
concentric  barrel  vault;  in  the  upper  arcade  radial  barrel 
vaults  are  supported  on  stone  beams  spanning  the  corridor. 
The  barrel  vaults,  in  this  and  other  instances,  do  not  have 
their  stones  bonded  together  lengthwise,  but  are  made  up  of 
independent  rings  of  voussoirs  side  by  side,  which  could  be 
erected  one  by  one  on  a  movable  centering  used  over  and  over. 
In  the  so-called  Baths  of  Diana  at  Nimes  the  rings  are  not  kept 
in  a  single  cylindrical  surface,  but  the  alternate  ones  rest  on 
those  between,  and  could  thus  be  laid  on  them  afterward 
without  any  centering  of  their  own.  In  Germany  the  more 
severe  climate  led  to  a  greater  degree  of  inclosure  and  the 
adoption  of  devices  for  artificial  heating.  The  thermae  and 
the  palace  of  Constantine  at  Trier  are  lacking  in  colonnaded 
openings  to  the  exterior,  and  have  double  outer  walls  with 
exceptional  facilities  for  circulating  warm  air  in  the  cavities. 
Although  late  constructive  developments  in  general  were 
tending  to  require  massive  outer  walls  as  a  support  for  vaults, 
it  is  not  fanciful  to  suppose  in  these  instances  an  influence  from 
climate  also. 

The  East.  Syria.  The  East  had  itself  furnished  the 
originals  for  many  Roman  forms  and  types,  and  continued  to 
contribute  to  them  during  the  imperial  period.  On  the  other 
hand  certain  arrangements  of  Roman  origin,  like  the  closed 
theater  with  its  union  of  seats  and  stage,  found  their  way 
eastward.  Besides  buildings  purely  Greek,  like  many  of  the 
temples,  and  purely  Roman,  like  the  Odeion  of  Herodes 
Atticus  in  Athens,  every  degree  of  mixture  appears,  as  in  the 
Greek  theaters  to  which  Roman  stages  were  added.  In 
Egypt  the  ancient  native  art  still  persisted  for  religious 
buildings,  as  in  Hellenistic  days.  A  hotbed  of  eastern  develop- 
ments was  Syria,  in  touch  with  the  interior  of  Asia  where  a 
new  artistic  fermentation  was  beginning.  Of  the  cities  which 


FIG.   62— MOUSMIEH.       PR^TORIUM.       (DE    VOGUE) 


154        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

reflected  Hellenistic  architecture,  Palmyra,  the  flourishing 
caravan  station  of  the  oasis  in  the  Syrian  desert,  still  gives  a 
vivid  picture.  The  principal  streets  are  lined  from  end  to 
end  with  tall  Corinthian  columns,  forming  porticoes  on  either 
side  with  richly  profiled  arches  at  the  intersections  and 
termini.  The  details  of  the  temples  there  and  at  Baalbek 
show  the  new  spirit  that,  coming  from  the  Orient  and 
spreading  westward,  broke  through  the  classical  canons. 
At  Palmyra  the  entablature  springs  as  an  arch  over  the 
wide  central  opening  of  the  portico;  at  Baalbek  the  carv- 
ing loses  the  projection  and  play  of  surface  always  char- 
acteristic of  Greek  and  Graeco-Roman  ornament  and  tends 
to  be  incised  below  the  plane  of  the  surrounding  sur- 
face— the  background  plane  disappears.  In  other  Syrian 
buildings,  especially  in  the  woodless  Hauran  district,  the 
departures  from  the  style  of  the  capital  are  still  more 
marked.  The  prastorium  or  guard  -  house  at  Mousmieh 
(Fig.  62)  has  vaults  resting  on  columns  with  only  a  block, 
instead  of  a  classic  entablature,  above  them;  the  basilica 
at  Chaqqua  is  roofed  entirely  with  stone  slabs  resting  on 
arches  as  devoid  of  extraneous  adornment  and  as  freely 
adapted  to  their  constructive  functions  as  those  of  the 
bridges  and  aqueducts. 

Infiuetice  of  Roman  architecture.  The  wide  diffusion  of 
Roman  architecture,  its  magnificent  associations,  and  its 
flexibility  in  meeting  new  and  complex  problems  makes  it 
easy  to  understand  the  wide  influence  which  it  exercised,  both 
on  the  peoples  who  immediately  succeeded  to  the  Roman 
possessions  and  on  those  who  sought,  many  centuries  later, 
to  revive  Roman  culture.  Under  the  Byzantine  rulers  of 
the  East  the  empire  still  lived  on,  and  its  architecture 
had  a  direct  continuance,  though  its  forms  were  rapidly 
modified  by  forces  already  at  work  there.  In  the  West 
the  Christian  monuments  of  the  last  emperors  furnished 
the  point  of  departure  for  the  architecture  of  the  Teutonic 
invaders,  the  indebtedness  of  which  to  Rome  is  well  sug- 
gested by  the  name  Romanesque. 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE  155 

PERIODS  OF   ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 
All  buildings  are  in  the  city  of  Rome  unless  otherwise  stated. 

I.      Early  republican  period,  to  about  300  B.C.      Etruscan  influence- 
First  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  dedication  ascribed  to 

510  B.C. 

Sack  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  390  B.C. 
"Wall  of  Servius." 


Cloaca  Maxima. 


Fourth  centurv  B.C.? 


"Arch  of  Augustus"  at  Perugia. 
Aqueduct  of  Appius  Claudius,  312  B.C. 

II.  Later    republican    period,  about  300  B.C.  to   50  B.C.     Greek 

influence. 
Conquest  of  Magna  Graecia  by  272,  Sicily  by  241;  destruction 

of  Corinth,  146;   Province  of  Asia  organized,  133  B.C. 
Rostral  column  of  Duilius,  260  B.C. 
Basilica  of  Cato  the  Censor,  184  B.C. 
Bridge  of  ^milius,  179-142  B.C. 
Pons  Mulvius,  rebuilt  no  B.C. 
Porticoes  of  Forum  at  Pompeii,  before  100  B.C. 
Temple  of  Hercules  at  Cori,  soon  after  100  B.C. 
Basilica  at  Pompeii,  before  80  B.C. 
Small  theater  at  Pompeii,  80  B.C. 
Amphitheater  at  Pompeii,  after  80  B.C. 
Tabularium,  78  B.C. 

Temple  of  "Fortuna  Virilis."  1  Toward   middle  of  the  first 
Circular  temple  at  Tivoli.  century  B.C. 

First  amphitheater  in  Rome  (of  wood),  58  B.C. 
Theater  of  Pompey,  55  B.C. 

III.  Imperial  period,  about  50  B.C.  to  350  A.D.     Oriental  influence. 

Basilica  Julia  and  Forum  of  Julius,  dedicated  (unfinished) 

46  B.C. 
Amphitheater  of  Statilius  Taurus,  30-29  B.C. 

Augustus,    27   B.C.-I4  A.D. 

Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  28-26  B.C. 

"Baths  of  Diana,"  Mimes,  25  B.C. 

Theater  of  Marcellus,  dedicated  n  B.C. 

Forum  of  Augustus  and  Temple  of  Mars  the  Avenger, 

dedicated  2  B.C. 
"Maison  Carrie,"  Nimes,  4  A.D. 
Thermae  of  Agrippa. 
Pont  du  Card,  Nimes. 


i56        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Nero,  54-68  A.D. 

Burning  of  Rome,  64  A.D. 
"Golden  House"  of  Nero,  64 /. 
Flavian  emperors  (Vespasian,  Titus,  Domitian),  69-96  A.D. 

Greatest  richness  of  detail. 
Colosseum,  70-82  A.D. 

Destruction  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  79  A.D. 
Temple  of  Vespasian,  80  A.D. 
Arch  of  Titus,  dedicated  81  A.D. 
Palace  of  the  Flavians  on  the  Palatine. 
Arch  of  Domitian. 

Forum  Transitorium,  completed  by  Nerva,  98  A.D. 
"Good  emperors." 
Nerva,  96-98  A.D. 
Trajan,  98-117  A.D. 

Thamugadi  (Timgad)  founded  100  A.D. 
Forum  of  Trajan  and  Basilica  Ulpia,  dedicated  113  A.D. 
Column  of  Trajan,  113-117  A.D. 
Thermas  of  Trajan. 
Port  of  Trajan  at  Ostia. 

Hadrian,   117-138  A.D.     Return  to  Hellenism  in  details. 
Pantheon,  120-124  A.D.,  modified  202  A.D. 
Mausoleum  of  Hadrian. 
Villa  of  Hadrian  at  Tivoli. 
Temple  of  Venus  and  Rome. 
Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 
Antoninus  Pius,  138-61  A.D. 

Temple  of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  141  A.D. 
Buildings  of  Herodes  Atticus  in  Greece,  c.  140-160  A.D. 
Principal  group  at  Baalbek. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  161-80  A.D. 

Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 
Septimius  Severus,  193-211  A.D. 

Arch  of  Severus. 
Caracalla,  211-17  A-D- 

Thermae  of  Caracalla. 
Gallienus,  260-68  A.D. 

Porta  Nigra,  Trier,  c.  260. 
Aurelian,  270-75  A.D. 

Wall  of  Aurelian. 
Diocletian,  284-305  A.D. 
Thermae  of  Diocletian. 
Palace  of  Diocletian  at  Spalato. 


ROMAN   ARCHITECTURE  157 

Maxentius,  306-312  A.D. 

Basilica  of  Maxentius  (Constantine). 
Constantine,  306-337  A.D. 

Arch  of  Domitian  rebuilt,  312  A.D. 

Christianity  made  the  state  religion,  330  A.D. 

Capital  removed  to  Constantinople  (Byzantium). 

Tomb  of  Constantia  (died  354  A.D.). 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

The  most  authoritative  general  account  of  Roman  architecture 
is  J.  Durm's  Baukunst  der  Etrusker  und  Romer,  2d  ed.,  1905  (Hand- 
buck  der  Architektur,  pt.  II,  vol.  i),  which  also  supplies  references  to 
discussions  of  individual  questions  and  monuments.  Anderson  and 
Spiers 's  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome,  26.  ed.,  1907,  and  F. 
Noack's  Baukunst  des  Altertums,  1910,  are  richly  illustrated,  both 
arranged  primarily  by  classes  of  buildings.  General  works  containing 
measured  drawings  of  Roman  buildings  are  A.  Desgodetz's  Les 
edifices  antiques  de  Rome,  first  published  1682  and  several  times  re- 
issued; G.  L.  Taylor  and  E.  Cresy's  The  Architectural  Antiquities  of 
Rome,  2  vols.,  1821-22;  Restaurations  des  monuments  antiques,  8  vols., 
1877-90;  H.  d'Espouy's  Fragments  d' architecture  antique,  2  vols., 
1896-1905;  Monuments  antiques,  vols.  2  and  3,  1910-12. 

Among  studies  of  special  types  or  problems  may  be  mentioned 
G.  Leroux's  Les  origines  de  V edifice  hypostyle,  1913  (for  the  basilicas); 

E.  R.  Fiechter's  Die  baugeschichtliche  Entwicklung  des  antiken  Thea- 
ters,  1914;    A.  Choisy's  L'art  de  bdtir  chez  les  Romains,   1873   (for 
constructive  methods);    P.  Gusman's  L'art  decoratif  de  Rome,  1908; 

F.  Haverfield's  Ancient  Town  Planning,  1913.     A.  Mau's  Pompeii, 
translated  by  F.  W.  Kelsey,  2d  ed.,  1902,  is  especially  important  for 
Roman  domestic  architecture  and  interior  decoration. 

The  unique  importance  of  the  city  of  Rome  and  the  wide  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  Roman  architecture  makes  topographical 
works  of  special  importance.  Detailed  lists  of  those  published  down 
to  its  date  are  contained  in  K.  Sittl's  Archdologie  der  Kunst,  1895 
(Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschaft,  vol.  6).  Recent 
works  covering  the  city  of  Rome  are  H.  Jordan  and  Chr.  Htilsen's 
Topographic  der  Stadt  Rom,  2  vols.  in  4,  1871-1907  (the  most  au- 
thoritative work  for  the  sections  covered  by  the  latest  volume); 
and  S.  B.  Platner's  Topography  and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Rome, 
2d  ed.,  1911.  The  panorama  published  by  J.  Buhlmann  and 
H.  Wagner,  Das  alte  Rom,  1892,  gives  a  graphic  idea  of  the  city  in  the 
time  of  Constantine.  For  the  other  principal  regions  see  A.  L. 


158         A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Frothingham's  Roman  Cities  in  Italy  and  Dalmatia,  1910;  T.  A. 
Cook's  Old  Provence,  2  vols.,  1905;  Lancoronski's  Stadte  Pamphyliens 
und  Pisidiens,  2  vols.,  1890-92;  H.  C.  Butler's  Architecture  in  Northern 
Central  Syria  and  the  Djebel-Hauran,  1903;  A.  Graham's  Roman 
Africa,  1902;  and  S.  GselTs  Les  monuments  antiques  de  VAlgerie, 
2  vols.,  1901. 

Of  the  Roman  treatises  on  architecture  preserved  from  antiquity 
the  most  useful  editions  in  English  are  Vitruvius's  Ten  Books  on 
Architecture,  translated  by  M.  H.  Morgan,  1914;  and  Frontinus's 
Two  Books  on  the  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Rome,  translated,  with 
explanatory  chapters,  by  C.  Herschel,  1899. 


CHAPTER  VI 
EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE 

The  medieval  point  of  view.  As  we  approach  the  study  of 
early  Christian  architecture,  and  indeed  of  all  medieval 
architecture,  we  must  note  at  the  outset  a  change  in  the  point 
of  view  of  the  designer  and  builder  which  strongly  impresses 
the  finished  work.  Medieval  architecture,  compared  with 
earlier  and  later  styles,  represents  the  spontaneous  expression 
of  the  artistic  ideals  of  a  community  rather  than  the  genius 
of  an  individual  or  a  number  of  architects.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  individual  lost  all  importance,  but  that  his  importance 
varied  more,  and  was  never  so  great  as  in  earlier  and  later 
periods.  Moreover  ecclesiastical  architecture  is  of  strongly 
predominant  importance.  Again,  this  does  not  mean  that 
medieval  secular  architecture  may  be  neglected,  for  at  certain 
times  and  in  certain  places  it  rival*  contemporary  ecclesiastical 
architecture  in  interest,  but  on  the  whole  the  main  interest  of 
medieval  architecture  is  in  the  ecclesiastical  work,  and  the 
student  is  justified  in  devoting  the  major  part  of  his  time  to 
the  study  of  the  churchly  rather  than  the  secular  buildings  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Classification.  Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  architecture. 
The  earliest  of  what  are  generally  classed  as  the  medieval 
styles  are  the  early  Christian  and  the  Byzantine,  the  former 
perhaps  slightly  antedating  the  latter.  Historians  have 
tended  to  make  a  sharp  division  between  the  two,  and  to  treat 
them  as  distinct  and  independent  movements.  The  early 
Christian,  frequently  also  called  the  Christian-Roman,  is 
regarded  as  the  typical  style  of  the  early  Christian  Church; 
the  Byzantine  is  considered  a  very  different  organic  style, 
forming  a  link  between  classic  architecture  and  the  flexible 
vaulted  styles  of  the  Romanesque  period.  This  classification, 


5.  Stefeno    Rptondo  5.  Pietro  in 

ViacoH  -  Rpme 


FIG.    63 — PLANS    OF  EARLY   CHRISTIAN   CHURCHES 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     161 

to  obtain  a  superficial  clearness,  often  engenders  a  profounder 
confusion.  On  account  of  it  one  is  apt  to  forget  that  early 
Byzantine  is  ipso  facto  early  Christian  architecture,  that  its 
roots  go  back  as  far  as  those  of  the  architecture  of  Christian 
Rome  and  indeed  coincide  with  them,  in  short  that  the  two 
styles  are  roughly  contemporary,  frequently  interacting,  and 
really  somewhat  variegated  manifestations  of  the  same  artistic 
movement.  These  facts  understood,  however,  the  separate 
classification  of  the  two  styles  will  be  found  useful.  Taken 
together  the  two  might  be  called  the  medieval  architecture  of 
Rome  and  the  East. 

Lack  of  self-consciousness  in  the  early  Christian  style.  The 
absence  of  self-consciousness  in  medieval  architecture  was 
never  more  marked  than  in  the  early  Christian  style.  No  art 
was  ever  a  more  direct  result  of  environment  and  need. 
During  the  period  of  gestation,  so  to  speak,  of  Christian  art 
the  Roman  Empire  was  hastening  toward  disintegration.  In 
other  words,  classical  authority  was  weakening.  At  the  same 
time  the  old  Latin  stock  was  being  transformed  by  fresh  blood 
from  the  East  and  West  into  a  race  barbaric,  perhaps,  but 
susceptible  to  new  ideas  and  ideals.  From  the  West  came 
energy ;  from  the  East  thought.  By  far  the  most  significant 
importation  from  the  East  was  Christianity  itself.  At  home 
in  the  East,  at  Rome  it  was  at  first  only  one  of  the  weaker 
Eastern  sects.  The  beginnings  of  its  art,  therefore,  like  the 
beginnings  of  its  ritual,  are  wrapped  in  a  baffling  obscurity. 
To  conquer,  it  had  to  struggle  fiercely,  and  it  learned  to  be  not 
only  ruthless  but  infinitely  adaptable.  These  characteristics, 
impressed  upon  the  early  religion,  became  marked  in  the 
architecture,  and  never  more  so  than  after  330  when  the  Chris- 
tian religion  emerged  triumphant.  In  the  East,  however,  as 
one  might  expect,  the  struggle  was  less  violent,  and  the  archi- 
tecture was  therefore  at  once  more  spontaneous  and  more 
suited  for  subsequent  development. 

Weakening  of  classical  authority.  From  the  very  beginning, 
both  in  East  and  West,  the  weakening  of  classical  authority 
was  of  the  highest  importance.  The  Romans,  in  combining 
the  trabeated  architecture  of  Greece  with  the  arch,  had  used 
both  elements  according  to  consciously  formulated,  if  varying, 
canons.  With  the  decline  of  the  empire  these  canons  became 


IhH 


"Tg^sa 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     163 

first  ignored,  then  forgotten.  The  result  was  decadence  from 
the  Roman  point  of  view,  but  possibility  of  infinite  develop- 
ment from  the  Christian.  One  of  the  first  results  was  the  free 
combination  of  the  column  and  the  arch,  anticipated  in  late 
Roman  imperial  work.  Set  rules  once  removed,  these  elements 
could  not  only  be  subjected  to  many  combinations,  for  example 
the  springing  of  an  arch  direct  from  a  capital  without  the 
intervening  entablature,  but  could  also  be  varied  in  scale, 
shape,  and  manner  of  use.  From  this  the  invention  of  new 
forms  was  a  logical  step,  and  flexibility,  the  keynote  of  medieval 
architecture,  was  obtained.  The  inevitability  of  this  tendency 
in  Christian  architecture  is  proved  by  the  same  tendency  in 
late  classical  work. 

Basilican  and  central  types.  The  way  being  paved  by 
classical  building  of  this  sort,  Christianity  soon  evolved  a  new 
architecture  adapted  to  its  needs  and  incidentally  expressive 
of  its  ideals.  In  general  the  buildings  thus  produced  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  whether  they  were 
designed  with  reference  to  a  longitudinal  or  a  central  vertical 
axis.  The  former  we  may  call  the  basilican,  the  latter  the 
central  type.  The  basilica,  with  its  long  lines  centering  atten- 
tion on  the  apsidal  end  of  the  church,  the  altar,  the  pulpits, 
the  bishop's  chair,  and  the  chancel  reserved  for  the  clergy,  is 
perfectly  adapted  for  the  ordinary  ritual  of  the  Christian 
church.  Every  detail  of  such  a  building,  invented  or 
borrowed,  is  a  direct  result  of  the  needs  of  the  service.  Receiv- 
ing its  first  development  in  Rome,  the  basilican  ideal  persisted 
in  the  West,  and  it  is  significant  that  from  the  liturgical  point 
of  view  the  finished  Gothic  cathedral  is  but  a  vastly 
complicated  and  organized  ramification  of  the  basilican  type. 
The  central  type  received  its  greatest  development  in  the 
East.  In  plan  it  might  be  circular,  polygonal,  or  in  the  form 
of  a  cross  with  equal  arms.  Buildings  of  such  character 
concentrated  attention  on  the  central  vertical  axis  and  were 
best  adapted  for  tombs,  baptistries,  and  inclosures  of  sacred 
spots.  Although  not  so  well  suited  for  the  needs  of  the 
Christian  liturgy  as  the  basilicari,  this  type  was  frequently 
designed  with  only  a  liturgical  purpose  in  view,  and  at  times, 
especially  in  the  East,  the  two  types  were  combined  in  a  man- 
ner which  makes  classification  difficult.  Thus  the  domed 


1 64        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

basilicas  of  Anatolia  partake  of  elements  of  both  schemes, 
and  Hagia  Sophia  at  Constantinople  itself  might  be  classified 
under  both  heads. 

Material  and  construction.  In  material  and  construction 
the  Western  buildings  were  the  lighter.  Brick  was  the  usual 
material  in  Rome,  and  vaulting  was  confined  to  the  apse. 
Nave  and  aisles  were  wooden-roofed.  In  the  East  vaulting 
was  the  rule,  and  the  use  of  heavy  cut  stone,  brick,  and  terra 
cotta  was  common,  though  the  timber  roof  often  appears  as 
well.  The  Eastern  buildings  were  more  pretentious  on  the 
exterior  than  the  Roman.  The  drab  brick  and  the  plain 
walls  of  the  latter  made  the  exteriors  unobtrusive  if  not  actually 
unsightly.  The  interiors,  on  the  other  hand,  were  lavishly 
decorated. 

Conservatism  and  possibilities  of  development.  The  Roman 
type  of  building  crystallized  early,  and  gives  the  impression  of 
a  finished  product.  The  Eastern  type,  perpetually  changing, 


FIG.   65 — ROME.      SAN   CLEMENTE.      PLAN    SHOWING   THE    ATRIUM 

on  the  whole  represents  a  step  in  the  development  to  some- 
thing new.  From  the  Eastern  style  the  Byzantine  could 
develop.  The  Western,  though  offering  suggestions  of  un- 
limited value  to  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  styles,  remained 
for  centuries  self-sufficient. 

The  Christian-Roman  basilica.  Turning  to  concrete  exam- 
ples, let  us  examine  first  the  buildings  in  Rome.  The  ideal 
Christian-Roman  basilica  is  easy  to  describe.  In  plan 
it  was  an  oblong  rectangle,  divided  into  three  or  five  aisles, 
and  provided  at  the  end  with  a  semicircular  apse.  In  the 
finished  examples,  such  as  old  Saint  Peter's  and  Saint  Paul's 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     165 

Outside-the-Walls,  a  rudimentary  transept,  or  bema,  slightly 
salient  at  the  sides,  was  introduced  between  the  rectangular 
building  and  the  apse,  giving  the  plan  a  form  approximating 
that  of  the  Latin  cross.  In  front  of  the  building  was  a  covered 
vestibule,  or  "narthex,"  and  before  that  a  peristylar  "atrium," 
open  to  the  sky,  with  a  font  in  the  center.  The  atrium,  an  ex- 
ample of  which  may  be  seen  at  San  Clemente  (Fig.  65),  was  for 
penitents  and  the  unbaptized,  and  it  gave  at  the  same  time  a 
dignified  seclusion  to  the  church.  Penitents  might  also  enter 
the  narthex.  The  rear  of  the  nave  was  reserved  for  the  cate- 
chumens, or  neophytes,  while  the  faithful  generally  took  their 
places  in  the  side  aisles.  The  apse,  bema,  and  often  the  upper 
nave  were  reserved  for  the  officiating  clergy.  This  space  was 
inclosed  by  a  railing,  the  "chancel,"  which  frequently  ran  far 
down  into  the  nave.  At  the  very  back  of  the  apse,  facing  the 
congregation  and  on  the  longitudinal  axis,  was  the  bishop's 
chair,  or  cathedra.  Before  it,  usually  at  the  intersection  of  the 
apse  and  the  bema,  was  the  altar  of  marble,  covered  with  a 
simple  marble  canopy,  the  ciborium.  Flanking  the  chancel 
were  two  pulpits,  or  ambones,  from  which  the  gospels  were 
read  and  the  sermons  preached.  The  common  material  for 
all  this  church  furniture  was  marble,  inlaid  with  mosaic,  which 
has  been  given  the  suggestive  name  of  opus  Alexandrtnum. 
Occasionally  two  rooms,  the  diaconicon  and  the  prothesis,  were 
placed  on  either  side  of  the  apse. 

Elevation.  In  elevation  the  nave  of  the  basilica  was  much 
higher  than  the  side  aisles,  permitting  a  broad  clerestory 
through  which  light  was  admitted  by  windows,  fitted  with 
wooden  grilles,  thin,  perforated,  marble  screens,  or  even  oiled 
cloth.  The  aisles  were  covered  with  slanting  roofs,  usually 
hidden  from  the  floor  by  flat  ceilings.  The  triangular  space 
thus  obtained  between  the  aisle  ceiling  and  roof  constituted  the 
"triforium."  At  times  the  triforia  were  sufficiently  roomy  to 
permit  the  superimposition  of  galleries  on  the  aisles,  and  these 
were  reserved  for  the  catechumens  or  for  the  segregation  of 
women  (gynacaa).  The  clerestory  walls  were  carried  on 
columns,  generally  antique,  which  separated  the  nave  from  the 
aisles.  Sometimes  the  system  was  trabeated;  sometimes,  as 
in  old  Saint  Peter's,  the  columns  bore  archivolts  on  which  the 
walls  were  set.  Nave  and  bema  were  covered  with  gable  roofs, 


1 66        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

reinforced  with  trusses,  and  generally,  though  frequently  at  a 
period  later  than  the  original  building,  hidden  from  the  floor 
by  richly  coffered  and  gilded  ceilings.  The  semicircular  apse 
alone  was  vaulted. 

Decoration.  Ample  compensation  for  the  dull  exterior  of 
the  basilica  was  made  by  the  gorgeous  polychromatic  decora- 
tion of  the  interior.  The  pavement  consisted  of  marble  flags 
and  tesserae,  in  divers  brilliant  colors  and  ingeniously  compli- 
cated geometric  designs.  The  columns  were  of  precious 
marbles,  fluted  or  unfluted,  varying  even  in  scale  according  to 
whether  or  not  the  builders  could  steal,  for  the  greater  glory  of 
God,  a  homogeneous  set  from  some  pagan  building.  In  like 
manner  the  capitals  varied,  frequently  not  even  fitting  the 
columns  that  bore  them,  and  the  entablature  above  was  often 
composed  of  unrelated  pilfered  classical  fragments.  That  such 
an  apparently  accidental  hodge-podge  should  form  an 
extremely  harmonious  and  decorative  whole  testifies  strongly 
to  the  underlying  good  taste  of  the  Christian  builder.  Finally 
the  wall  spaces,  and  especially  the  concave  surfaces  of  the 
apsidal  semi-domes,  were  covered  with  glass  mosaic,  gold- 
backed  and  flashing  with  brilliant  color.  Sacred  personages, 
especially  the  Saviour,  were  thus  portrayed,  and  eventually 
whole  cycles  of  biblical  history  were  taught  by  means  of 
pictured  mosaic.  This  mosaic,  like  the  opus  Alexandrinum, 
was  in  origin  essentially  Eastern. 

Origin  of  the  Christian-Roman  basilica.  The  origin  of  the 
Christian  basilica  is  somewhat  obscure.  Superficially  the 
type  seems  to  have  sprung  into  completed  being  with  the  reign 
of  Constantine,  but  this  merely  proves  that  the  preliminary 
steps  in  its  development  have  been  lost.  The  most  obvious 
theory  of  the  creation,  dating  back  to  Leon  Battista  Alberti,  is 
that  the  Christian  architects  merely  took  over  and  copied  the 
ancient  Roman  classical  basilica.  The  ancient  civil  basilicas, 
however  >  were  of  two  sorts,  one  Eastern  in  origin  and  the  other 
Western,  or  Hellenic.  The  plan  of  the  latter  strongly  suggests 
the  Christian  basilica,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
later  building  was  derived  from  the  Greek  civil  basilica  of  the 
classic  times.  The  Christian  building  seems  to  have  been 
modified  in  detail,  however,  by  the  imitation  of  some  of  the 
forms  of  the  Roman  house,  wherein  the  early  Christians  were 


FIG.   66 — ROME.       SAINT    PAUL'S    OUTSIDE-THE-WALLS.       INTERIOR    SEEN 
FROM   THE   ENTRANCE 


FIG.   67 — ROME.      SAN   LORENZO  FUORI-LE-MURA.      EXTERIOR 


1 68        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

wont  to  worship,  and  by  the  invention  of  new  forms  for  better 
fulfilment  of  liturgical  needs. 

Variations.  Within  the  fixed  limits  of  the  type  thus  set 
there  was  room  for  considerable  individual  deviation.  Indeed 
no  two  of  the  many  basilicas  in  Rome  are  precisely  the  same. 
Some,  like  old  Saint  Peter's  (Fig.  63),  had  five  aisles;  others, 
like  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  had  but  three.  At  times,  as  in 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  the  architrave  appears;  at  times  the 
archivolt  takes  its  place,  as  in  Saint  Paul's  Outside-the- Walls 
(Figs.  64  and  66).  In  general  as  time  went  on  the  archivolt 
more  and  more  took  the  place  of  the  architrave.  In  many 
of  the  smaller  buildings,  like  the  eighth  century  church 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  the  bema  was  omitted.  An- 
other remarkable  deviation  appears  in  the  same  building, 
where  the  colonnade  is  broken  and  piers  are  inserted  at 
regular  intervals.  Occasionally  the  side  aisles  were  finished 
with  smaller  salient  apses  suggesting  Syriac  or  Egyptian 
influence.  Such  an  arrangement  appears  in  San  Pietro  in 
Vincoli  (Fig.  63).  Galleries  above  the  aisles,  more  typical 
of  the  Orient  than  the  Occident,  are  to  be  found  in  San- 
t'Agnese  fuori-le-mura  (Fig.  64). 

Orientation  of  the  Christian  church.  An  interesting,  if 
freakish,  variation  occurs  in  San  Lorenzo  fuori-le-mura  (Figs. 
63,  67,  and  68).  Here  two  churches,  an  early  one  and  a  later, 
oriented  in  opposite  directions  and  juxtaposed  apse  to  apse, 
have  been  joined  into  a  single  building.  In  early  times, 
especially  in  buildings  constructed  under  the  influence  of 
Constant ine  (Saint  Peter's,  Saint  Paul's,  the  Lateran,  San 
Lorenzo),  the  facade  and  not  the  apse  was  placed  to  face  the 
east.  Soon,  however,  the  orientation  was  fixed  with  the  apse 
to  face  the  east,  and  this  scheme  was  followed  whenever 
possible  throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  Christian-Roman  basilica  in  Italy  outside  of  Rome.  The 
Christian-Roman  basilica  is  best  studied  at  Rome,  but  is 
found  throughout  the  empire  frequently  alongside  of,  and 
contemporaneous  with,  buildings  of  a  different  style.  Only 
in  Rome,  however,  did  it  show  so  completely  the  conservatism 
which  is  one  of  its  most  marked  characteristics.  In  Ravenna, 
for  example,  we  find- the  sixth  century  church  of  Sant'  Apolli- 
nare  Nuovo  (Fig.  69)  essentially  basilican  in  form,  yet  so 


FIG.   68 — ROME.      SAN      LORENZO   FUORI-LE-MAURA.      INTERIOR 


FIG.   69 — RAVENNA.      SANT*   APOLLINARE   NUOVO.      INTERIOR 


170        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Byzantine  in  detail  that  the  work  might  be  classified  under 
either  head. 

The  Roman  building  of  the  central  type.  In  Rome  buildings 
of  the  central  type,  though  they  are  to  be  found,  never  attained 
anything  like  the  importance  of  the  basilicas.  The  most 
characteristic  example  of  the  type  in  Rome  is  the  church  of 
San  Stefano  Rotondo  (Figs.  63,  64,  and  70).  This  structure, 


FIG.    7O — ROME.      SAN    STEFANO    ROTONDO.      INTERIOR 


consecrated  in  468,  had  originally  the  form  of  two  concentric 
aisles  inclosing  a  cylinder  raised  above  them  to  form  a  clere- 
story. The  whole  was  wooden-roofed,  and  in  cross-section 
would  have  precisely  the  appearance  of  a  basilica.  Designed 
as  a  church,  the  ineptitude  of  this -form  of  building  from  the 
ritualistic  point  of  view  is  eloquently  voiced  by  its  centuries 
of  almost  complete  disuse.  That  buildings  of  the  central 
type,  vaulted  throughout,  were  constructed  in  Rome  is  proved 
by  the  church  of  Santa  Costanza  (Fig.  71).  Outside  of  Rome 
the  buildings  of  the  central  type  are  generally  so  obviously 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     171 

Oriental  in  inspiration  that  they  are  best  discussed  under 
the  diffusion  of  Eastern  influence. 

The  East.  Geographical  divisions.  The  study  of  Eastern 
architecture  offers  a  very  different  problem.  In  the  nearer 
Orient  one  finds  no  conservative,  well-developed  style  awaiting 
definition.  Generally  speaking,  the  early  Christian  architect- 
ure of  Rome  was  static,  that  of  the  East  dynamic.  In  the 
East  architecture  was  in  a  state  of  flux,  or  rather  progression,  a 
style  changing  almost  as  one  seeks  to  fix  its  type.  Moreover, 


FIG.  71 — ROME.      SANTA  COSTANZA.      SECTION  SHOWING  THE  CONSTRUCTION 

local  variations  were  striking,  and  the  first  step  toward  clear- 
ness involves  a  subdivision  of  the  East  into  three  distinct 
regions;  Anatolia,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  The  first,  in  the  north, 
corresponds  to  Asia  Minor,  and  its  artistic  center  was  Ephesus. 
The  second,  farther  south  and  including  Palestine,  was 
guided  artistically  by  Antioch.  Alexandria  controlled  the 
third.  A  fourth  broad  division  might  be  made  of  northern 
Africa,  not  so  important  historically,  yet  affording  many 
examples  of  early  Christian  art. 

The  Syrian  basilica.  Beginning  with  Syria,  let  us  first 
consider  the  basilica.  Here,  besides  examples  very  like  the 
Roman  buildings,  other  structures  appear,  absolutely  new  in 


172         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  history  of  art.  Only  within  comparatively  recent  times 
has  attention  been  directed  to  Antioch  and  the  so-called 
"dead  cities"  of  Syria,  where  receding  civilization  has  left 
ruins,  and  often  well-preserved  buildings,  as  impressive  as  any 
to  be  found  in  Pompeii.  In  the  typical  Syrian  basilica  the 
atrium  was  abandoned  and  a  covered  porch,  flanked  by  two 
monumental  towers,  was  substituted  for  the  narthex.  A 
unique  fagade,  very  suggestive  of  later  medieval  architecture, 


FIG.    72 — TOURMANIN.      THE    BASILICA   RESTORED 

was  thus  obtained.  In  the  interior,  generally  three-aisled,  the 
Greek  colonnade  gave  way  to  great  piers,  bearing  an  arcade, 
sometimes  double  and  wide  of  span,  giving  an  impression  of 
great  space.  Between  the  clerestory  windows  corbels  often 
bore  colonnettes  which  ran  up  to  receive  the  transverse  beams 
of  the  timber  roof  and  gave  the  structure  something  of  the 
feeling  of  logical  articulation  so  commonly  associated  with  the 
organic  Romanesque  and  Gothic  styles.  There  were  generally 
three  apses  at  the  east  end,  usually  round,  though  occasionally 
square,  in  plan,  and  at  times  horseshoe-shaped. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     173 

Examples.  Good  examples  of  Syrian  basilicas  may  be  seen 
at  Ruweiha,  at  Mchabbak,  and  at  Tourmanin  (Fig.  72). 
Perhaps  the  finest  example  of  the  Syrian  fagade  is  that  of 
Tourmanin,  and  the  most  complete,  and  probably  the  best 
single  example  of  Syrian  architecture,  is  the  church  of  Khalb- 
Louzeh  (Fig.  63).  In  the  Hauran,  on  account  of  the  scarcity 
of  wood,  an  even  more  remarkable  development  took  place, 


FIG.    73 — KALAT-SEMAN.      THE   BASILICA   OF   SAINT   SIMEON   STYLITES 

and  one  finds  buildings  constructed  entirely  of  monumental 
cut  stone.  Transverse  arches  were  thrown  across  the  naves, 
and  these  supported  roofs  of  stone  flags  laid  parallel  to  the  main 
axis  of  the  building.  The  timber  roof  then  entirely  disappeared. 
The  originality  of  these  buildings  really  indicates  a  reversion 
of  the  Orient  to  its  native  genius. 

Buildings  of  the  central  type  in  Syria.  The  buildings  of  the 
central  type  in  Syria  were  equally  important.  Constantine 
himself  set  the  style  with  the  famous  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  crowned  with  a  dome  supported  on  an  interior 


174        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

colonnade,  and  surrounded  by  a  circular  aisle  carrying  a 
gallery  above  it.  Two  buildings  of  capital  importance  in  the 
history  of  architecture  are  the  churches  of  Ezra  and  Bosra 
(Figs.  63  and  64)  in  Syria.  The  former  is  in  plan  an  octagon 
inscribed  in  a  square.  The  octagon  drum  is  covered  by  an 
egg-shaped  dome,  the  transition  from  the  drum  to  the  dome 
being  made  by  squinches.  A  salient  apse,  semicircular  within 
and  three-sided  without,  appears  at  the  east  end.  The  system 
of  Bosra  is  even  more  ingenious.  The  plan  is  that  of  a  circle 
inscribed  within  a  square.  The  great  central  dome  was 
carried  on  eight  pillars,  and,(to  neutralize  its  thrust,  was  sur- 
rounded by  an  annular  barrel  vault,  fortified  by  four  semi- 
circular exedras  at  the  angles  of  the  square.  Three  apses  were 
placed  at  the  east  end.  Perhaps  the  most  perfect  of  the 
Syrian  buildings  of  the  central  type  was  the  monastery  of 
Saint  Simeon  Stylites  (Fig.  73).  Round  an  octagonal  court, 
in  the  center  of  which  was  the  column  of  the  famous  ascetic, 
four  great  three-aisled  basilicas  were  placed  to  form  a  gigantic 
Greek  cross.  The  eastern  arm,  finished  with  three  apses,  was 
the  church  proper;  the  others  were  reserved  for  pilgrims. 
The  extraordinary  fertility  of  invention  in  these  buildings 
shows  the  beginning  of  an  attempt  to  produce  a  satisfactory 
ecclesiastical  building  of  the  central  type.  The  architects  of 
Byzantium  were  to  be  preoccupied  largely  with  this  problem. 

Syrian  decoration.  The  Mschatta  frieze.  Not  less  significant 
was  the  decoration  of  the  Syrian  building.  We  have  seen  at 
Spalato,  imported  from  Syria,  the  modification  and  free  use 
of  classic  detail  to  embellish  the  exterior  of  an  edifice.  The 
same  procedure  was  maintained  with  infinite  variations  in 
Syria  proper.  Moreover,  the  Syrians  evolved  a  new  scheme 
of  sculptured  decoration,  superbly  shown  in  the  frieze  from 
Mschatta  (Fig.  74)  now  in  the  Berlin  museum,  wherein  classic 
and  Oriental  motives  are  combined  in  the  richest  of  patterns 
and  crisply  cut  in  low  relief.  Polychromatic  decoration,  too, 
was  common  in  Syria.  In  short,  the  region  showed,  at  an 
early  date,  new  developments  in  architecture  which  unques- 
tionably aided  in  paving  the  way  for  the  Byzantine  style,  and 
perhaps  even  for  the  remote  Romanesque  of  Europe. 

Early  Christian  architecture  of  Egypt.  In  plan  and  con- 
struction the  buildings  of  Egypt  show  far  less  ingenuity  than 


FIG.    74 — BERLIN     MUSEUM.        THE     FRIEZE     FROM      MSCHATTA.      (STRYZ- 

GOWSKl) 


176        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

those  of  Syria.  An  interesting  class  of  Egyptian  monuments 
is  marked  by  the  use  of  an  immense  trefoil-shaped  sanctuary, 
divided  from  the  three-aisled  nave  by  a  wide  transept.  The 
trefoil  sanctuary,  however,  may  well  be  an  importation  from 
Syria.  One  Alexandrian  invention,  the  cistern  with  its  cover 
supported  on  columns,  was  caused  by  local  needs  and  destined 
to  exert  a  strong  influence  in  Constantinople.  The  special 
importance  of  Egypt  lay  in  the  decorative  schemes  evolved 
there.  For  centuries  Alexandria  had  been  the  center  of  a 
school  of  lively  pictorial  decoration.  To  this  was  added  in  the 
early  Christian  centuries  brilliant  work  in  glass  mosaic  and 
inlaid  marble.  Thus  equipped,  Egypt  was  able  to  dower  both 
Byzantium  and  Italy  with  the  rich  polychromatic  interior 
decoration  which  became  the  vogue  practically  throughout 
Christendom. 

The  basilica  in  Anatolia.  In  Anatolia  the  architects  proved 
themselves  structurally  the  most  inventive  of  all.  The  con- 
trolling city  was  Ephesus,  but  the  sites  where  the  architecture 
may  be  studied  are  very  numerous,  the  best  perhaps  being 
Bin-bir-Kilisse  (the  thousand  and  one  churches),  in  the  plain 
of  Konieh  in  southeastern  Anatolia.  Here  the  majority  of 
the  basilicas  recall  the  buildings  of  Syria.  They  are  generally 
three-aisled  with  a  single  strongly  salient  apse,  either  circular 
or  polygonal.  At  the  entrance  to  the  nave  is  a  porch  flanked 
by  two  towers.  All  this  might  be  Syrian,  but  the  Anatolian 
strikes  his  special  note  by  vaulting  his  structure,  and  numbers 
of  these  buildings  have  heavy  barrel  vaults  over  nave  and 
aisles.  An  excellent  example  of  this  type  of  building  may  be 
seen  at  Daouleh.  Side  by  side  with  these  vaulted  structures, 
however,  may  be  seen  the  Graeco-Roman  type,  with  atrium, 
brick  walls,  and  timber  roof. 

The  central  type  in  Anatolia.  Anatolia,  too,  abounded  in 
buildings  of  the  central  type.  We  have  an  interesting  descrip- 
tion of  a  Martyrium,  written  in  the  fourth  century  by  Gregory 
of  Nysa.  The  monument  was  to  be  cruciform,  the  arms  of  the 
cross  bound  at  their  intersection  by  semicircular  niches,  and 
a  conical  dome  was  to  cover  the  crossing.  The  use  of  the 
conical  dome  suggests  the  influence  of  Persia,  and  indeed 
the  most  significant  element  in  Anatolian  architecture  is  the 
Persian.  The  Syrian  conical-domed  buildings,  like  the 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     177 

churches  of  Ezra  and  Bosra,  may  have  been  copied  from 
Anatolia  or  themselves  inspired  direct  from  Persia.  Many 
variations  of  Gregory's  scheme  may  be  seen  to-day,  especially 
at  Bin-bir-Kilisse. 

The  Anatolian  domed  basilica.  Historically  the  most  inter- 
esting of  the  types  evolved  in  Anatolia,  however,  is  what  has 
been  called  the  domed  basilica.  The  first  step  in  its  develop- 
ment was  made  by  placing  a  square  bay  before  the  apse  to 
enlarge  the  presbyterium,  and  adding  galleries  above  the  aisles 
for  the  faithful.  To  give  a  lighter  effect  to  buildings  of  such 
large  dimensions,  without  weakening  the  barrel  vaults  by 
piercing  them  with  windows,  the  architects  hit  on  the  scheme 
of  breaking  the  barrel  vault  with  a  dome,  and  thus  the  domed 
basilica,  destined  to  exercise  an  enormous  influence  on  later 
architecture,  came  into  being.  A  perfect  example  of  the  type 
may  be  seen  at  Kodja-Kalessi  (Fig.  63),  where  the  dome  oc- 
cupies two  bays  of  the  nave.  The  same  type,  constructed 
in  brick,  occurs  in  Saint  Clement's  at  Ancyra.  In  both  the 
dome  is  carried  on  squinches.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Saint 
Nicholas  of  Myra,  and  at  Dehr-Ahsy  in  Syria,  we  find  domed 
basilicas  with  the  domes  carried  on  pendentives. 

The  problem  of  the  dome.  Many  and  ingenious  were  the 
solutions  of  the  problem  of  the  dome  in  Anatolia.  Materials 
were  varied,  and  bricks  and  terra-cotta,  adopted  from  neighbor- 
ing Persia,  were  used  to  reduce  the  thrusts  of  heavy  domes.  To 
make  the  transition  from  the  square  or  polygon  below  to  the 
round  dome  above,  the  architects  adopted  many  methods. 
Squinches  were  commonest,  sometimes  merely  of  flat  stones 
laid  across  the  angles  of  the  square,  reducing  it  to  a  polygon, 
and  then  other  stones  laid  across  the  angles  of  the  polygon, 
making  them  still  more  obtuse,  until  in  successive  courses  the 
mass  was  coaxed  into  the  roughly  circular  form  necessary  to 
receive  the  base  of  the  dome.  Sometimes  arches  were  thrown 
across  the  angles  of  the  square  or  polygon,  and  again,  when 
the  dimensions  were  sufficiently  small,  single  blocks  at  the 
angles  were  hollowed  out  in  pendentive  form. 

The  pendentive.  By  far  the  most  important  solution  of  the 
problem,  however,  was  the  true  pendentive.  In  mathematical 
terms  a  pendentive  is  a  segment  of  a  hollow  hemisphere,  the 
diameter  of  which  is  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  the  square  to  be 


178        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

covered.  In  non-technical  language,  however,  the  member 
is  not  so  easy  to  describe.  Imagine  a  square  to  be  covered  by 
a  dome  of  such  dimensions  that  its  edge  would  touch  the 
square  only  at  the  four  corners.  Obviously  the  dome  would 
project  beyond  the  four  sides  of  the  square.  Imagine  all 
portions  of  the  dome  projecting  beyond  the  sides  of  the  square 
to  be  shaved  off  vertically,  and  the  result  would  be  a  penden- 
tive  dome,  or,  technically,  a  continuous  dome  on  pendentives. 


FIG.    75 — RAVENNA.      THE    MAUSOLEUM    OF    GALLA    PLACIDIA.      DRAWING 
OF   THE   EXTERIOR 


Imagine  then  the  top  of  the  pendentive  dome  to  be  sliced  off 
horizontally  at  a  point  just  above  the  crowns  of  the  lateral 
arches  caused  by  the  vertical  cuts.  The  result  would  be  four 
spherical  triangles  or  pendentives,  segments  of  a  sphere,  the 
diameter  of  which  would  equal  the  diameter  of  the  square 
below.  On  these  a  true  dome  could  be  placed,  producing  a 
dome  on  pendentives  (Fig.  64). 

The  origin  of  the  pendentive.      The  pendentive  was  destined 
to  become  one  of  the  most  marked  characteristics  of  Byzantine 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     179 

architecture.  Though  its  origin  is  open  to  dispute,  it  must 
have  been  the  logical  outgrowth  of  the  Persian  vaults  of  light 
material  without  centering.  The  strong  probability  is  that 
the  architects  of  Anatolia,  in  close  contact  with  the  Orient, 
independently  created  this  most  important  member. 

Diffusion  of  Oriental  influence  in  the  West.  Buildings  at 
Ravenna.  Through  the  influence  of  commerce  and  monas- 
ticism  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries  were  marked  by  a 
widespread  diffusion  of  Oriental  influence  in  the  West.  Al- 
though it  appears,  as  we  have  noted,  in  the  fourth  century 
palace  of  Diocletian  in  Spalato,  and  again  later  in  Rome  in  the 
decorations  of  the  basilicas,  and  especially  in  the  buildings 
of  the  central  type,  its  full  force  in  Italy  is  best  judged  in  the 
architecture  of  Ravenna.  Here  two  buildings  of  the  mid- 
fifth  century,  the  Mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia  (Figs.  63  and 
75)  and  the  so-called  Baptistry  of  the  Orthodox,  attest  the 
almost  complete  domination  of  Oriental  inspiration  in  this 
Western  city.  The  former,  now  the  church  of  Santi  Nazzaro  e 
Celso,  is  Greek  cruciform  in  plan,  the  crossing  being  covered 
with  a  continuous  dome  on  pendentives,  ingeniously  con- 
structed of  hollow  terra-cotta  amphorae  inserted  one  within 
another.  The  material  alone  establishes  the  influence  of  the 
Orient,  especially  of  Persia.  The  exterior  is  plain,  the  brick 
walls  being  lightened  somewhat  by  blind  arcades.  Externally 
the  dome  appears  as  a  square.  The  interior  shows  a  com- 
plete incrustation  of  precious  glass  mosaic  in  the  Alexandrian 
manner.  The  Baptistry  of  the  Orthodox  (San  Giovanni  in 
Fonte)  is  a  polygonal  structure,  with  a  dome  constructed  like 
that  of  the  tomb  of  Galla  Placidia. 

Mingling  of  early  Christian  and  Byzantine  elements.  Al- 
though in  point  of  time  such  works  fall  within  the  early 
Christian  period,  to  classify  them  merely  as  early  Christian 
would  produce  a  deep  misconception  of  their  architectural 
significance.  Already  they  anticipate  so  many  elements  of 
the  Byzantine  style  that  they  might  as  justly  be  called  By- 
zantine. This  does  not  mean  that  they  were  importations 
from  Constantinople.  On  the  contrary,  they  were  Italian 
products  of  the  same  Eastern  influences  that  were  already  at 
work  in  Constantinople  to  produce  the  Byzantine  style. 

Conclusion.     Early  Christian  architecture  may,  therefore, 


180        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

be  regarded  from  two  points  of  view.  From  one  it  is  a  self- 
sufficient  style,  amply  providing  the  early  Church  with  build- 
ings beautiful  in  themselves  and  even  finer  in  their  complete 
fulfilment  of  the  needs  for  which  they  were  designed.  Re- 
garded from  this  point  of  view,  the  Christian-Roman  basilica  is 
the  supreme  product  of  early  Christian  architecture.  From 
the  other  and  broader  point  of  view,  the  early  Christian  style 
is  a  link  in  the  great  architectural  chain,  connecting  the  weak- 
ening classic  art  with  the  vigorous  new  style  of  Byzantium. 
Especially  the  buildings  of  Eastern  Christianity,  experimental, 
lawless  in  their  disregard  of  classic  tradition,  at  times  even 
crude  though  always  full  of  promise,  herald  in  no  uncertain 
tone  the  advent  of  the  art  so  soon  to  appear  in  Constantinople. 

CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  EARLY   CHRISTIAN 
MONUMENTS 

It  must  be  noted  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  date  medieval  monu- 
ments exactly,  and  we  must  frequently  be  satisfied  with  the  half 
century  or  century  in  which  a  building  was  erected.  A  single  date, 
without  qualification,  refers  to  the  beginning  of  the  portion  of  a 
building  referred  to  in  the  text.  In  general  it  is  always  well  to 
remember  that  an  error  in  dating  a  medieval  monument  is  apt  to 
give  the  monument  greater  antiquity  than  it  deserves. 


ITALY 

Rome,  Old  Saint  Peter's. — Consecrated  326. 

Rome,  Santa  Costanza. — Built  323-337;   rebuilt  1256. 

Rome,  Saint  Paul's  Outside-the-Walls. — Founded  386,   but  rebuilt 

1823. 

Rome,  Santa  Maria  Maggiore. — Rebuilt  432—440. 
Rome,  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli. — Founded  ca.  450. 
Ravenna,  Mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia. — Ca.  450. 
Ravenna,  Baptistry  of  the  Orthodox. — Mid-fifth  century. 
Rome,  San  Stefano  Rotondo. — 468-483. 
Ravenna,  Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo. — Soon  after  500. 
Rome,    San    Lorenzo   Fuori  -  le  -  Mura. — Rebuilt    578;     remodeled 

1216-27. 

Rome,  Sant'  Agnese,  Fuori -le-Mura. — Rebuilt  625-638. 
Rome,  San  Clemente. — Rebuilt  1108. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE     181 

THE     EAST 

Jerusalem  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. — 312-337. 

Ruweiha. — Fourth  century. 

Kodja-Kalessi. — Fourth  or  possibly  fifth  century. 

Mschatta  Frieze. — Possibly  fourth,  possibly  sixth  century. 

Mchabbak.— Fifth  century. 

Daouleh. — Fifth  century  (?). 

Saint  Simeon  Stylites. — End  of  fifth  century. 

Ancyra,  Saint  Clement. — Fifth  century  (?). 

Myra,  Saint  Nicholas. — Fifth  century  (?). 

Bosra. — 512. 

Ezra.— 515. 

Tourmanin. — Sixth  century. 

Khalb-Louzeh. — Sixth  century. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTE 

A.  Michel's  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  1905,  contains  valuable 
articles  by  Andre  Perate  and  Camille  Enlart  summarizing  early 
Christian  art,  including  architecture.  H.  Marucchi's  Basiliques  et 
eglises  de  Rome,  1002,  is  an  authoritative  work,  forming  vol.  3  of  the 
author's  series,  Elements  d'archeologie  chrelienne.  A.  Venturi's 
Storia  dcll'arle  italiana,  vols.  i  and  2,  1901  and  1902,  contain  an 
account  of  early  Christian  architecture  in  Italy.  G.  T.  Rivoira's 
Le  origini  della  archittetura  lombarda,  vol.  i,  1901,  is  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  origins  of  Italian  medieval  architecture  by  an  eminent 
scholar,  who  believes  that  these  origins,  whether  they  involve  early 
Christian  or  Byzantine  architecture,  are  Occidental  rather  than 
Oriental.  G.  Leroux's  Les  origines  de  V edifice  hypostyle  en  Grece,  en 
Orient,  et  chez  les  Remains,  1913,  is  a  scholarly  work,  important  for  the 
light  it  throws  on  the  origin  of  the  Christian-Roman  basilica.  W. 
Lowrie's  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church,  1906,  is  a  skilfully  arranged 
hand-book  of  early  Christian  art,  with  architecture  soundly  treated. 
A.  L.  Frothingham's  Monuments  of  Christian  Rome,  1908,  is  another 
hand-book  with  good  summaries  of  the  histories  of  the  monuments. 
M.  de  Vogue's  Syrie  cenlrale,  1865-77,  a  monumental  and  ground- 
breaking piece  of  scholarship,  now  somewhat  out  of  date,  is  the 
most  important  of  the  author's  many  publications  dealing  with 
early  Christian  architecture  and  other  arts  in  Syria.  By  H.  C. 
Butler  are  two  works — Architecture  and  Other  Arts,  1903,  and  Ancient 
Architecture  in  Syria,  1907.  The  former  is  the  publication  of  an 
American  expedition  to  Syria  in  1899;  the  latter  is  the  second  divi- 


1 82        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

sion  of  the  "Publications  of  the  Princeton  Expedition  to  Syria,  in 
1904-1905."  Both  works  present  masses  of  new  material  in  the 
most  elaborate  way,  and  are  worthy  successors  of  the  publications  of 
de  Vogue.  J.  Stryzgowski's  Orient  oder  Rom,  1901,  Kleinasien,  zpoj, 
and  Byzantinische  Denkmaler  are  publications,  the  last  a  series  of  pub- 
lications, by  an  original  scholar  of  encyclopedic  information.  Though 
the  works  deal  more  with  Byzantine  than  early  Christian  monu- 
ments, they  are  important  for  both,  especially  on  account  of  the 
author's  thesis,  successfully  defended,  that  the  creative  impulse  in 
early  Christian  and  Byzantine  art  came  from  the  Orient.  C. 
Diehl's  Manuel  d'art  byzantin,  1910,  is  a  highly  authoritative  synthe- 
sis of  the  history  of  Byzantine  art,  with  a  valuable  discussion  of  the 
early  Christian  architecture  of  the  East  as  an  introduction.  O. 
Wulff's  Altchristliche  Kunst,  1914  (Handbuch  der  Kuntwissenschaft), 
ch.  4,  Die  altchristliche  Baukunst,  is  the  most  recent  summary  of  all, 
with  exhaustive  references  to  the  latest  discussions  of  individual 
points. 


CHAPTER  VII 
BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 

Origins.  Byzantine  architecture  came,  like  the  Wise  Men, 
out  of  the  East,  the  roles  of  the  Magi  being  played  by  the 
three  great  cities:  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Ephesus.  From  the 
first  of  the  three  came  the  polychromy  which  remained  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  style  from  beginning  to  end.  The  second  sup- 
plied the  Byzantine  ideal  of  sculptured  decoration,  flat,  crisply 
cut  relief  and  an  all-over  covering  of  the  surface.  The  third, 
most  important  of  all,  gave  the  structural  elements  which  the 
Byzantine  architects  fused,  systematized,  and  developed  for 
ten  centuries. 

Centralization.  Although  the  style  was  diffused  over  a  vast 
area,  from  Armenia  to  France  and  from  Russia  to  Africa,  the 
nerve  center  remained  practically  always  at  Constantinople. 
To  this  centralization  are  due  the  main  characteristics  and 
general  homogeneity  of  the  style.  Byzantium  took  the  ideas 
of  the  Orient,  handled  them  with  the  lavish  means  and  broad 
conceptions  of  Rome,  and  welded  them  with  a  refinement 
literally  neo- Attic.  The  result  was  a  new  art,  but,  like  the 
Roman,  a  distinctly  imperial  one.  Architecturally  as  well  as 
politically,  Constantine  supplanted  imperial  Rome  by  im- 
perial Constantinople. 

Ecclesiastical  and  secular  work.  Byzantine  architecture  was 
primarily  ecclesiastical,  but  this  generalization  must  often  be 
qualified.  During  the  reigns  of  important  emperors,  such  as 
Constantine  (323-337),  Justinian  (527-565),  and  Basil  I.  (867- 
887),  civil  architecture  played  an  extremely  important  part. 
The  churches  exercised  a  greater  influence  on  other  styles  than 
civil  buildings,  and  were  often  preserved  when  the  civil  build- 
ings were  destroyed,  but  this  fact  should  not  blind  us  to  the 
importance  of  the  non-ecclesiastical  work. 


1 84        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Lack  of  self -consciousness  of  the  style.  Whether  lay  or  ec- 
clesiastical, however,  Byzantine  architecture  was  on  the 
whole  unselfconscious.  Lavish  as  the  decoration  might  be 
in  church  or  palace,  the  important  consideration  was  always  a 
satisfactory  solving  of  structural  needs,  and  this  became  the 
real,  if  unconscious,  canon  of  Byzantine  esthetic  theory. 
Moreover,  the  style  tended  to  be  corporate  rather  than  in- 
dividual, though  not  to  nearly  so  complete  an  extent  as  the 
medieval  styles  of  western  Europe.  Especially  in  the  earlier 
period  individuals  were  apt  to  dominate  the  works,  but  later 
craftsmen  and  obscure  architects  were  given  very  free  rein, 
and  even  in  the  earliest  times  the  individual  appears  as  the 
voice  of  the  civilization  rather  than  its  teacher. 

Conservatism  and  development.  Byzantine  art  has  generally 
been  considered  rigidly  conservative.  It  was,  in  truth,  con- 
servative, yet  only  in  so  far  as  conservatism  was  not  incon- 
sistent with  development.  Nothing  could  be  more  mistaken 
than  the  too  common  conception  of  the  Byzantine  style  as  one 
which  crystallized  in  the  sixth  century  and  continued  as  a 
chain  of  monotonous  repetitions  until  the  fifteenth.  The  art 
was  always  conscious  of  and  taught  by  its  past,  but  it  never 
slavishly  copied  its  past,  and  development  was  none  the  less 
steady  for  being  slow. 

Materials.  The  materials  used  in  Byzantine  architecture 
were  very  varied.  Brick  and  mortar  were  commonest  and 
most  expressive  of  the  ideals  of  the  style.  By  means  of 
light,  porous  material  the  architect  got  his  most  striking 
effects,  and  mortar  joints  were  frequently  increased  to  the 
width  of  the  bricks  bonded.  Concrete  was  used  for  cores, 
but  the  rigid  concrete  vaults  of  the  Romans  disappeared. 
Cut  stone  was  used  freely,  but  nearly  always  as  an  adjunct 
to  other  material.  A  homogeneous  use  of  ashlar  was  prac- 
tically unknown  in  Byzantine  architecture  outside  of  cer- 
tain restricted  regions,  notably  Greece  and  Armenia.  For 
purposes  of  decoration  the  Byzantine  architects  used  mosaic 
and  marble,  the  latter  sometimes  carved  in  flat,  tapestry- 
like  relief,  sometimes  applied  as  a  veneer.  In  the  later  style 
decoration  in  brick  became  common,  and  wall  surfaces  were 
enriched  with  an  infinity  of  patterns  in  brick,  or  brick  alter- 
nating with  cut  stone.  The  absence  of  formulated  esthetic 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


185 


criteria  gave  full  play  to  the  invention  and  good  taste  of 
the  designers. 

Structure.  The  originality  and  fertility  of  the  Byzantine 
architect  never  shows  more  happily  than  in  the  solving  of 
problems  of  structure.  The  style  was  essentially  a  vaulted 
one,  and  the  most  important  form  of  vault  was  the  dome. 
Wood  being  scarce,  the  problem  of  centering  was  serious,  and 
the  architects,  taking  their  cues  from  Anatolia  and  Persia, 
soon  learned  to  construct  important  vaults  without  centering. 


FIG.    76 RAVENNA.       SAN   VITALE.      EXAMPLES   OF   BYZANTINE   CAPITALS 


To  that  end  they  developed  the  lightest  and  most  durable  ma- 
terials, bound  by  thick,  adhesive  mortar  joints.  Then  by 
completing  the  vaults  in  successive,  concentric,  self-sustaining 
rings,  by  slanting  brick  courses  so  as  to  require  little  or  no  sup- 
port from  below,  and  by  the  invention  of  ingenious  devices  for 
the  definition  of  vault  surfaces  during  the  process  of  construc- 
tion, the  architects  succeeded  almost  entirely  in  eliminating 
the  necessity  for  centering.  Moreover,  the  stability  of  the 
finished  structure  was  further  insured  by  an  equilibrium  of 
thrusts.  Domes  and  vaults  were  grouped  compactly  and 
logically,  their  thrusts  opposing  one  another,  and  the  thrusts 
of  a  great  central  dome  were  neutralized  and  carried  off  by  a 


1 86        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

number  of  subordinate  domes  grouped  round  it.  The  style 
thus  had,  especially  in  the  later  period,  a  large  measure 
of  that  structural  logic  which  one  associates  with  Gothic 
architecture. 

Supports.  The  same  logic  was  shown  admirably  in  the  use 
of  supports.  The  use  of  squinches  for  the  support  of  domes 
was  inherited  from  the  East  and  continued  with  variations 
throughout  the  entire  development  of  the  style.  Far  more 
important  in  the  history  of  architecture  was  the  use  of  the 
pendentive.  To  the  Byzantines  belongs  the  credit  of  recog- 
nizing the  full  possibilities  of  the  pendentive,  and  the  use  of 
these  members  as  a  support  for  a  superimposed  dome  was  in- 
augurated in  Byzantium  (Fig.  64). 

Capitals.  Moreover,  the  logic  of  the  architects  was  not 
confined  solely  to  the  immediate  supports  of  the  dome.  The 
capitals,  which  carried  the  weight  of  the  vault,  were  of  an 
entirely  new  and  logical  design.  Unlike  the  Roman  entabla- 
ture with  its  merely  crushing  weight,  the  mass  which  the  By- 
zantine capital  had  to  carry  was  heterogeneous  and  exercised 
a  variety  of  thrusts  in  many  directions.  To  meet  this  mass 
the  architects  first  designed  a  sturdier  Corinthian  capital, 
with  a  wider  abacus.  Next  they  added  a  heavy  thrust  block, 
like  an  inverted,  truncated  pyramid,  to  make  the  transition 
from  the  capital  to  the  mass  above.  Capitals  of  this  sort 
may  be  seen  in  the  Eski-djouma  in  Salonica.  The  idea  of  the 
impost  came  from  Syria,  where  the  use  of  such  members  was 
current  in  the  fifth  century,  the  Syrians  in  turn  having  prob- 
ably received  it  from  Persia.  A  further  step  was  taken  in 
San  Vitale  at  Ravenna  (Fig.  76),  when  the  Corinthian  char- 
acter of  the  capital  was  almost  abandoned,  and  it  was  shaped 
like  a  richly  ornamented  impost  block.  Finally,  at  Hagia 
Sophia  at  Salonica,  the  form  appears  on  which  all  Byzantine 
capitals  were  based,  an  impost  block,  carried  on  a  broad,  thin 
abacus,  whence  the  load  is  transmitted  to  a  high,  convex  bell, 
broad  at  the  top  and  slender  at  the  base  where  it  meets  the 
slender  shaft.  The  form  thus  invented  combines  elements  of 
the  three  Greek  classic  forms,  and  is  both  apt  and  beautiful. 
It  was,  moreover,  flexible,  and  capable  of  infinite  variety, 
from  the  stern  simplicity  of  the  rudimentary  capitals  in  the 
cistern  of  Bin-bir-direk  to  the  rich  profusion  of  the  melon,  bird 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


187 


and  basket,  and  wind-blown  acanthus  capitals  of  the  fully 
developed  style. 

Types  of  ecclesiastical  buildings.  Since  the  Byzantine  ec- 
clesiastical buildings  surpass  all  other  sorts  in  importance, 
we  must  devote  most  of  our  study  to  them.  The  types 
created  were  diverse.  In  the  earlier  period  the  type  developed 
from  the  domed  basilica  of 
Anatolia  was  the  favorite, 
the  most  famous  example 
being  Hagia  Sophia  at 
Constantinople.  In  the 
so  -  called  second  golden 
age,  in  the  ninth,  tenth, 
and  eleventh  centuries, 
the  Greek-cross  plan  be- 
came the  fashion,  although 
both  types  existed  in  both 
periods.  Sometimes  the 
plan  was  that  of  a  Greek 
cross  inscribed  within  a 
square,  the  cross  marked 
in  the  actual  building  only 
by  the  clerestory.  At 
other  times  a  true  Greek 
cross  was  designed  on  plan. 
In  the  beginning  the  so- 
called  triconch  or  "three- 
shell"  plan,  with  a  trefoil 
division  of  the  apsidal 
end,  was  popular,  and  this 

type  persisted,  with  modifications,  throughout  the  history  of 
the  style.  The  true  basilican  plan,  though  not  wholly  for- 
gotten, was  never  popular.  Circular  and  polygonal  buildings 
were  also  designed,  but  by  far  the  most  popular  form  of  build- 
ing of  the  central  type  was  the  Greek  cross. 

Churches  earlier  than  Hagia  Sophia  of  Constantinople.  Al- 
though Hagia  Sophia  may  be  regarded  almost  as  the  proclama- 
tion of  Byzantine  architecture,  it  was  preceded  by  a  number  of 
buildings  outside  of  as  well  as  within  Constantinople  that 
heralded  the  approaching  style.  We  have  already  noted 


FIG.   77  —  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
SERGIUS  AND  BACCHUS. 


IbMlr, 

SAINTS 
PLAN 


A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


Ravennate  buildings  which  might  well  be  called  Byzantine. 
Similarly  the  Stoudion  basilica,  built  in  Constantinople  in 
463,  although  it  conforms  to  the  Hellenistic  type  and  retains 
the  post  and  lintel  system,  is  Byzantine  in  spirit,  and  the 
purely  Byzantine  church  of  Saints  Sergius  and  Bacchus  in 
Constantinople  (Fig.  77)  slightly  antedates  Hagia  Sophia. 

This  building  recalls  the  churches 
of  Ezra  and  Bosra  (Figs.  63  and 
64)  in  Asia  Minor,  but  is  more 
skilfully  planned  and  executed. 

Saint  Irene,  Constantinople.  In 
532  Justinian  caused  the  building 
of  another  church,  Saint  Irene,  in 
Constantinople  (Fig.  78),  which 
brings  us  still  nearer  the  full- 
fledged  Byzantine  style.  The 
architect  of  Saint  Irene  was  prob- 
ably inspired  by  the  church  of 
Hagia  Sophia  at  Salonica,  a  build- 
ing which  probably  antedates 
somewhat  its  great  namesake  in 
Constantinople.  Both  Saint 
Irene  and  Hagia  Sophia  at 
Salonica  are  variants  of  the 
Anatolian  -  domed  basilica.  In 
Saint  Irene  the  domes  are  abutted 
by  barrel  vaults  grouped  about 
them  in  the  shape  of  a  cross,  and  it 
seems  possible  that  we  have  here 
the  germ  of  the  Greek-cross  form. 

Hagia  Sophia.  All  these  buildings  appear  insignificant, 
however,  beside  the  "Great  Church,"  the  church  of  the 
Divine  Wisdom,  Hagia  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  This  build- 
ing embodies  more  fully  than  any  other  the  full-fledged 
Byzantine  style  of  the  first  golden  age.  Justinian  began  it  in 
532,  to  replace  a  Constant inian  church  of  the  same  name  which 
had  been  destroyed  in  the  Nika  sedition.  Anthemius  of 
Tralles  and  Isidorus  of  Miletus  were  the  architects,  both  of 
Anatolian  origin.  The  church  was  completed  in  five  years  and 
dedicated  with  the  most  impressive  ceremonies  and  amid 


4 — t 


FIG.    78 — CONSTANTINOPLE. 
SAINT    IRENE.      PLAN 


DjAMi  CONSTANTINOPLE:  MANASSIA 


SAN  ViTALL  TlAVENNA 


XtWCHVBCH  or  BASIL  I 


UTTLEMLTnOPOUS 

Arntws 


HAGIA  SOPHIA     CoN5TANTiNOPLt 


MX  LA  CHAPLLLt 


tTSCHMlADZIN 


FIG.    79 — PLANS   OF   BYZANTINE   CHURCHES 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


191 


general  thanksgiving  December  27,  537,  by  Justinian.  In 
558  the  central  dome  fell,  but  a  nephew  of  Anthemius  rebuilt  it 
according  to  a  somewhat  less  ambitious  design,  and  the  church 
was  reconsecrated  by  the  Emperor  in  562. 

Plan  and  construction.  In  plan  (Fig.  79)  Hagia  Sophia 
occupies  a  great  square  which,  excluding  the  apse  and  the 
narthex,  measures  about  250  by  240  feet.  A  double  narthex, 
galleries,  and  an  atrium  precede  the  nave.  In  the  center  is 


FIG.    8l — CONSTANTINOPLE.      HAGIA   SOPHIA.      EXTERIOR 

reared  a  great  dome  on  pendentives,  107  feet  in  diameter, 
carried  on  four  huge  piers,  25  feet  square,  and  abutted  east  and 
west  by  two  half-domes  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  central 
dome  (Fig.  80).  These  mark  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the 
building.  Abutment  to  the  north  and  south  is  supplied  by 
four  tremendous  buttresses  of  marble-faced  rubble.  The  half- 
domes  are  in  turn  abutted  at  the  springing  by  paired  smaller 
half-domes,  and  thus,  partly  by  opposing  thrust  to  thrust  and 
partly  by  carrying  off  the  thrust  of  the  great  dome  in  descend- 
ing stages  to  the  outer  wall  and  the  ground,  the  whole  struct- 
ure is  admirably  stabilized.  At  the  east  end  a  salient  apse, 


1 92        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

polygonal  on  the  exterior,  opens  into  the  eastern  half-dome. 
Right  and  left  of  the  central  dome  and  its  half -domes  are 
aisles,  groin- vaulted,  and  surmounted  by  galleries  which  are 
covered  with  domical  vaults.  At  present  four  minarets  of  an 
incongruous  Turkish  design  stand  free  at  the  four  corners  of 
the  building. 

Exterior.    Although  the  apex  of  the  dome  is  180  feet  above 
the  pavement,  the  external  appearance  of  the  building  is 


FIG.    82 — CONSTANTINOPLE.      HAGIA    SOPHIA. 
TOWARD   THE    APSE 


INTERIOR  LOOKING 


squat  (Fig.  81).  The  Byzantine  architect  of  the  first  golden 
age  fully  appreciated  the  difficulty  of  properly  abutting  a  lofty 
dome,  and  seldom  sought  to  make  the  dome  a  striking  feature 
externally.  The  dome  of  Hagia  Sophia,  less  than  a  semicircle 
in  cross-section,  is  in  height  from  springing  to  crown  but  47 
feet.  The  external  effect,  however,  is  none  the  less  fine, 
combining  monumentality  with  compactness  and  a  strong 
feeling  for  the  esthetic  value  of  sturdy,  frankly  safe  con- 
struction. 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  193 

Interior.  The  interior,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  strong 
impression  of  height  (Fig.  82).  The  ring  of  small  openings 
piercing  the  base  of  the  dome  lightens  the  whole  structure, 
so  that  the  dome  appears  almost  miraculously  suspended  over 
the  great  central  void.  Moreover,  the  columns  of  various 
proportions  in  ground  story  and  galleries  give  a  much-needed 
scale,  which  permits  the  eye  easily  to  grasp  the  monumental 
proportions  of  the  building. 

A  domed  basilica.  Although  Hagia  Sophia  is  roughly  square, 
it  is  not  properly  of  the  central  type,  but  is  planned  with  refer- 
ence to  a  longitudinal  axis,  and  therefore  fulfils  the  liturgical 
ideal  of  the  early  Christian  basilica.  It  may  be  regarded  as 
the  supreme  Byzantine  development  of  the  Anatolian  domed 
basilica. 

Decoration.  The  decoration  of  Hagia  Sophia,  true  to  the 
ideals  of  the  first  golden  age,  is  drab  on  the  exterior,  but 
brilliant  on  the  interior.  The  exterior  is  now  painted  in 
horizontal  black  bands,  but  in  the  original  design  there  was  no 
attempt  at  enlivening  the  wall  surfaces  with  colors  or  even 
patterns  in  the  material  used.  The  interior,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  gorgeously  decorated  with  veneered  marbles  and 
glass  mosaic.  The  marble,  sawn  thin,  was  highly  polished 
and  skilfully  placed  so  that  reversed  patterns  from  the  veining 
of  a  single  block  were  juxtaposed.  Above  the  ground  story 
the  interior  was  crusted  with  gold-backed,  glass  mosaic,  now 
unfortunately  whitewashed  by  the  Turks.  The  capitals  and 
some  of  the  surfaces  were  decorated  with  crisp  carving  in  flat 
relief,  suggesting  the  art  of  Syria.  Occasionally  the  interstices 
of  the  carving  were  filled  with  black  marble,  further  accenting 
the  already  sharp  impression  of  light  and  shade. 

The  Holy  Apostles,  Constantinople.  Although  Hagia  Sophia 
was  the  greatest  and  most  typical  building  of  the  first  golden 
age,  many  other  buildings  were  constructed  during  this  period, 
some  of  them  of  the  greatest  importance  historically.  The 
most  significant  building  after  Hagia  Sophia  was  another 
work  of  Anthemius  and  Isidorus,  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Apostles  in  Constantinople  (Figs.  83  and  84),  destroyed  by  the 
Turks  to  make  way  for  the  mosque  of  Mohammed  II.  This 
building,  known  to  us  by  descriptions  and  a  manuscript 
illumination  (Fig.  83),  was  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross  obtained 


i94        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


by  the  intersection  of  two  basilican  naves,  vaulted  and  aisled 
(Fig.  84).  Over  the  crossing  was  a  dome  pierced  with 
windows,  and  over  each  arm  another  dome,  probably  blind. 
The  type  thus  suggested  was  never  received  with  much  favor 
in  the  first  golden  age,  but  it  unquestionably  formed  the  basis 

for  numerous 
churches  which 
were  erected  in 
later  Byzantine 
architecture. 
Saint  Mark's  in 
Venice  is  but  a  de- 
velopment of  the 
lost  church  of  the 
Holy  Apostles. 

Building  oj  Jus- 
tinian's age  outside 
of  Constantinople. 
The  important 
architecture  of 
Justinian's  time 
was  not,  however, 
confined  to  Con- 
stantinople or 
even  to  the  East. 
At  Parenzo  in 
Istria  Bishop  Eu- 
phrasius  raised  an 
important  church 
in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, basilican  in 

form,  but  Byzantine  in  spirit  and  decoration.  Italy  played  a 
still  more  important  role  in  this  period,  and  the  buildings 
at  Ravenna  scarcely  yield  in  beauty  and  creative  genius  to 
those  of  Constantinople. 

Buildings  at  Ravenna.  Two  buildings  in  Ravenna,  the 
churches  of  Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe  and  Sant'  Apollinare 
Nuovo  (Fig.  69),  are  of  basilican  plan  and  Byzantine  detail 
and  decoration,  The  latter  was  commenced  under  Theodoric 


FIG.  83 — ROME.  THE  VATICAN.  MANUSCRIPT 
ILLUMINATION  SHOWING  THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE 
CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  APOSTLES  AT  CONSTAN- 
TINOPLE. (DIEHL) 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


(493-526),  but  was  decorated  by  Byzantine  workmen.  The 
former  was  consecrated  in  549.  By  far  the  most  important 
Ravennate  church  of  the  period,  however,  was  San  Vitale 
(Figs.  79  and  80),  begun  between  526  and  534  and  finished  in 
547,  a  building  showing  great  originality  and  destined  to  exer- 
cise strong  influence  on  subsequent  architecture.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  an  octagon  crowned  with  a  dome  on  a  drum,  carried 
by  eight  stout  pillars. 
These  pillars  are  bound 
one  to  another  by  an 
ingenious  system  of 
exedrae  similar  to  those 
of  Saints  Sergius  and 
B  acchus .  To  dimi  nish 
the  thrust,  the  dome 
is  constructed  as  in  the 
tomb  of  Gal  la  Placidia, 
of  long  terra  cotta 
amphorae,  fitted  one? 
into  another.  Each 
pier  is  bound  to  the 
external  wall  by  an 
arch,  and  each  salient 
angle  is  strengthened 
with  a  pier  buttress. 

Later  architecture  of  the  first  golden  age.  The  death  of 
Justinian  did  not  interrupt  the  architectural  activity  which 
his  reign  initiated.  The  art  continued  to  show  both  vitality 
and  originality.  At  Constantinople  the  mosque  of  Kalender- 
hane-djami,  probably  once  the  Diaconessa,  built  by  the 
Emperor  Maurice,  dates  at  the  latest  from  the  seventh  century, 
and  shows  a  reversion  to  the  domed  basilican  type.  From  the 
same  period  comes  the  ancient  church  of  Saint  Andrew — now 
the  mosque  of  Hodja-Moustapha-pasha — with  a  great  central 
dome,  abutted  like  Hagia  Sophia's  by  half  domes. 

Development  in  Armenia.  Outside  of  Constantinople  the 
art  flourished  in  this  period,  and  especially  showed  originality 
in  Armenia.  The  cathedral  of  Etschmiadzin  (Fig.  79),  with 
its  Greek  cross  inscribed  in  a  square  and  the  four  arms 
terminated  by  salient  apses,  certainly  influenced  the  tenth 


FIG.    84 — CONSTANTINOPLE.      THE    HOLY 
APOSTLES.       PLAN,    RESTORED 


i96        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

century  churches  of  Mount  Athos,  and  appears  to  be  imitated 
in  the  ninth  century  French  church  of  Germigny-les-Pres.  In 
its  present  form  Etschmiadzin  dates  from  the  seventh  century. 
The  seventh  century  architecture  of  Armenia  showed  so  much 
vitality  that  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  strongly  influenced 


FIG.    85 — AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.      CHARLEMAGNE'S    CHAPEL.      INTERIOR 

Constantinople  itself,  as  well  as  Byzantine  architecture  out- 
side of  the  central  city. 

The  Iconoclastic  controversy.  Diffusion  of  the  Byzantine 
style  in  Europe.  In  726  the  development  of  Byzantine  art 
was  impeded,  though  not  arrested,  by  the  beginning  of  the 
Iconoclastic  controversy.  Though  Leo  the  Isaurian's  decree 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  197 

was  directed  against  images,  all  the  arts  were  affected,  and 
architecture  in  Constantinople  went  through  a  period  of  semi- 
stagnation  which  was  not  relieved  until  Theodora's  restoration 
of  image  worship  in  842,  and  not  really  removed  until  the 
accession  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty  in  867.  Nothing  better 
illustrates  the  vitality  of  Byzantine  architecture  than  its 
diffusion  in  this  dark  period.  The  very  throttling  of  the  art 
at  home  tended  to  spread  it  abroad,  and  what  Constanti- 
nople lost  the  Occident  of  the  Carolingian  Renaissance  gained. 
From  the  very  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  dates  Charle- 
magne's fine  chapel  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (Figs.  79,  80,  and  85),  a 
direct  imitation  of  San  Vitale.  Somewhat  later  Germigny- 
les-Pres  was  planned  on  lines  suggested,  as  we  have  seen,  by 
the  Armenian  architecture  of  the  seventh  century.  Byzantine 
architecture  was,  therefore,  not  arrested,  but  merely  tempo- 
rarily ceased  to  center  in  Constantinople. 

The  second  golden  age.  With  the  accession  of  the  Mace- 
donian dynasty  Constantinople  resumed  her  sway,  and  there 
began  what  is  generally  known  as  the  second  golden  age  of 
Byzantine  art.  Prosperity  came  once  more  to  the  empire, 
power  to  the  ruling  house.  Fresh  Oriental  influence  vivified 
the  art,  and  architects  sought  inspiration  in  the  monuments  of 
the  past.  Inspiration  was,  however,  far  removed  from 
imitation.  The  architecture  of  the  second  golden  age  differs 
widely  from  that  of  the  first,  and  ably  demonstrates  the 
dynamic  power  of  the 'art. 

Changes  in  plan.  In  the  second  golden  age  the  basilican 
plan  entirely  disappeared.  The  octagon  went  with  it,  and  the 
triconch  type  occurred  only  in  a  radically  modified  form. 
Even  the  domed  basilican  type  became  very  rare,  although  the 
ninth  century  church  of  Saint  Theodosius  (now  the  Gul- 
djami)  at  Constantinople  shows  it. 

The  Greek  cross  plan  of  the  second  golden  age.  By  far  the 
favorite  plan  was  the  Greek  cross,  but  this  differed  essentially 
from  the  earlier  Greek  cross  as  seen  in  the  mausoleum  of  Galla 
Placidia  and  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles.  In  the  older 
form  the  arms  of  the  cross  appear  in  the  contours  of  the  plan, 
and  subordinate  domes  are  placed  on  each  arm  of  the  cross. 
In  the  latter,  the  re-entrant  angles  are  filled  on  plan,  the  ground 
story  plan  being  square  and  the  cross  appearing  only  in  the 


1 98        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

upper  stories.  The  arms  of  the  cross  are  covered  with  barrel 
vaults,  and  the  subordinate  domes  are  placed  in  the  angles 
between  the  arms.  The  plan  is  thus  a  Greek  cross  inscribed 
within  a  square,  with  a  central  dome  and  four  domes,  often 
hidden,  at  the  angles.  The  thrusts  of  the  subordinate  domes 
and  barrel  vaults  tend  to  neutralize  one  another,  and  all 
oppose  the  thrusts  of  the  central  dome.  Thus  the  whole 
system  is  so  logical  and  organic  that  one  is  reminded  of  the 
organic  systems  of  Romanesque  architecture.  The  germ  of 
the  typical  Greek  cross  building  of  the  second  golden  age  is  to 
be  found,  therefore,  not  in  the  classic  example  of  the  Greek 
cross  of  the  first  golden  age,  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles, 
but  in  the  domed  basilica,  and  especially  in  such  a  building  as 
Saint  Irene  at  Constantinople  (Fig.  78). 

Changes  in  expression.  Along  with  this  change  in  plan  there 
came  a  change  in  architectural  expression.  The  vertical  line 
was  accented.  The  height  of  the  building  became  greater  in 
proportion  to  its  breadth.  Domes  were  constantly  raised  upon 
drums,  and  became  striking  features  externally.  The  logical 
spirit  of  the  construction  was  reflected  in  the  lines  of  the 
exterior.  Thus  a  curved  vault  in  the  interior  was  represented 
on  the  exterior  not  by  a  gable,  but  by  a  curved  line.  As  the 
construction  became  more  daring  the  scale  decreased,  and  the 
buildings  of  the  second  golden  age  were,  in  general,  much 
smaller  than  those  of  the  first.  Finally,  the  whole  exterior 
was  regarded  as  suitable  for  decoration,  polychromy  was 
applied  to  it,  and  the  texture  of  the  wall  received  especial  care. 
Bricks  of  various  shapes  and  colors  were  used  and  ingenious 
patterns  devised,  so  that  the  exterior  of  a  twelfth  century 
Byzantine  church  bears  but  slight  resemblance  to  that  of  one 
of  the  sixth. 

La  Nea.  La  Nea  (Fig.  79),  the  "new  church"  of  Basil  I. 
(d.  886),  was  to  the  second  golden  age  what  Hagia  Sophia  was 
to  the  first.  Unfortunately  it  has  been  destroyed,  but  we 
know  its  plan  from  descriptions.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a 
Greek  cross,  with  a  central  dome  and  four  smaller  domes  set 
in  the  angles  between  the  arms  of  the  cross.  Unquestionably 
this  building  set  the  type  for  the  majority  of  the  churches 
that  followed. 

Evolution  of  the  type.     The  evolution  of  the  type  can  be 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


199 


traced  in  extant  monuments.  It  appears  in  a  rudimentary 
form  in  a  church  at  Skripou  in  Bceotia,  dated  874,  which  lacks 
subordinate  domes,  and  is  heavy  in  construction,  but  which 
shows  the  Greek  cross  plan  with  barrel-vaulted  arms.  It  may 
be  seen  fully  developed  in  the  Kilisse-djami  (formerly  the 


FIG.    86 — CONSTANTINOPLE. 


THE  KILISSEDJAMI. 
(EBERSOLT) 


VIEW  FROM  THE  EAST. 


Theotokos)  in  Constantinople  (Figs.  79  and  86),  dating  from 
the  first  half  of  the  tenth  century.  Here  appear  both  barrel- 
vaulted  arms  and  angle  domes.  The  exterior  lines  are 
harmoniously  curved,  and  the  surfaces  finely  treated  in  alter- 
nate bands  of  brick  and  ashlar. 

Examples.  The  Greek  cross  within  a  square  continued  the 
favorite  church  plan  throughout  the  Macedonian  and 
Comnenian  dynasties.  One  sees  it  in  the  small  church  of 
Saint  Luke  at  Stiris  in  Phocis  (Figs.  84  and  87),  dating  from 
the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  later,  in  the 
epoch  of  the  Comnenes,  it  appears  finely  developed  in  the  triple 
church  of  the  Pantocrator,  built  about  1124  in  Constantinople 


200        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

by  Irene,  empress  of  John  Comnenus.  Of  the  three  buildings 
which  form  this  work  two,  those  on  the  north  and  south,  are 
perfect  examples  of  the  classic  plan  of  the  second  golden  age. 
The  central  church  has  but  two  domes. 

Variations.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the 
favorite  type  was  slavishly  copied  everywhere  in  the  later 
period.  The  commonest  variation  was  the  omission  of  the 


FIG.    87 — STIRIS    (PHOCIS),       MONASTERY    OF    SAINT    LUKE.      VIEW    FROM 
THE    EAST    SHOWING    THE    TWO    CHURCHES.        (SCHULTZ    AND    BARNSLEY) 


four  subordinate  domes,  and  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
Byzantine  churches  are  of  this  form.  The  finely  composed 
Nea  Moni  at  Nauplia  is  of  this  type,  as  well  as  the  better 
known  churches  of  Saint  Theodore  and  the  Little  Metropolis 
(Figs.  79  and  80)  at  Athens.  All  of  these  date  from  the 
twelfth  century. 

The  squinch  group.  Another  variation  in  the  churches  of 
this  period  might  be  called  the  squinch  group.  In  these  the 
dome  is  broader  in  diameter  and  is  carried  on  a  sixteen-sided 
drum,  and  the  proportions  are  squatter  than  in  the  other 
churches  of  the  period.  To  this  genre  belong  the  monastery 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE 


2OI 


of  Saint  Luke  at  Stiris  (Fig.  87),  the  Nea  Moni  of  Chios,  and 
the  fine  church  at  Daphni,  near  Athens. 

Churches  at  Athos.  The  churches  of  Athos  and  the  vicinity, 
with  their  semicircular  apses  terminating  the  lateral  arms  of 
the  cross,  form  another  group.  One,  the  catholicon  of  Lavra, 
deserves  special  mention.  It  is  a  three-aisled  building,  the 


FIG.    88 — VENICE.      SAINT   MARK.      PLAN 


three-fold  division  being  indicated  on  the  exterior  by  arcades, 
and  it  thus  appears  to  combine  the  types  of  the  Greek  cross 
and  the  domed  basilican  churches. 

Saint  Mark's,  Venice.  By  far  the  most  important  example 
of  a  variation  from  the  favorite  plan  of  the  second  golden  age 
occurs  in  the  famous  church  of  Saint  Mark  in  Venice  (Fig. 
88),  begun  in  1063.  This  building  is  a  frank  reversion  to  the 
plan  of  Anthemius'  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  at  Constanti- 
nople. The  plan  is  that  of  a  Greek  cross  defined  on  the  ground 
story,  with  a  dome  on  pendentives  in  the  center  and  a 
smaller  dome  on  pendentives  over  each  arm  of  the  cross.  A 


202        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

galleried  narthex  embraces  three  sides  of  the  western  arm  of 
the  cross.  The  great  piers  which  carry  the  dome  are  pierced 
to  give  greater  space  in  the  ground  story,  and  are  connected 
by  galleries,  the  width  of  the  piers,  carried  on  marble  columns. 
Light  is  admitted  through  rings  of  openings  round  the  bases 


FIG.    89 — VENICE.      SAINT   MARK.    VIEW   FROM   THE    PIAZZA 

of  the  domes,  which  are  less  than  semicircular.  On  the 
exterior  (Fig.  89)  the  domes  are  masked  by  false  domes  of 
wood,  lead  covered,  which  form  a  striking  feature  of  the  church 
as  seen  from  the  Piazza.  Within  (Fig.  90),  the  decoration  is 
extremely  rich,  veneered  marbles  and  precious  mosaics  being 
used  as  freely  as  in  Hagia  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  The 
exterior,  with  its  clustered  marble  columns,  polychrome 
marble  veneer,  and  flashing  mosaic,  is  as  lavishly  decorated  as 
the  interior.  The  building  as  it  stands  is  by  no  means  homo- 
geneous. There  are  many  Gothic  details  in  the  facade,  and 
some  of  the  mosaics  date  from  the  Renaissance  and  even 
from  modern  times. 

Byzantine  influence  in   Aquitaine.     Saint   Mark's,    or   its 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  203 

prototypes,  appears  strongly  to  have  influenced  Occidental 
architecture.  In  France  the  twelfth  century  church  of  Saint 
Front  at  Pe"rigueux  (Fig.  99)  repeats  almost  verbatim  the  plan 


FIG.   90 — VENICE.      SAINT   MARK.      INTERIOR  LOOKING  TOWARD  THE   APSE 

of  Saint  Mark's,  though  then  arthex  and  all  the  polychrome 
decoration  within  and  without  are  omitted.  Many  other 
buildings  of  Aquitaine  were  similarly  constructed,  so  that  the 
architecture  of  that  region  might  be  classified  alike  under  the 
headings  of  Byzantine  and  French  Romanesque. 

Georgia  and  Armenia.     Among  the  most  original  buildings 


204        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


of  the  second  golden  age  are  those  of  Georgia  and  Armenia. 
Some  are  very  early  in  date,  for  example .  the  church  of 
Pitzounda  on  the  Black  Sea,  probably  of  the  tenth  century, 
and  that  of  Akthamar  on  Lake  Van  (Fig.  91),  surely  of  the 

tenth.  In  these 
buildings  the 
Greek  cross  form 
was  used  most 
freely,  though 
older  forms  such 
as  the  domed 
basilica  and  the 
three  shell  type 
survived.  In 
other  respects, 
however,  these 
buildings  showed 
striking  original- 
ity. The  central 
dome,  raised  on  a 
lofty,  ashlar-built, 
many-sided  drum, 
became  almost  a 
tower.  On  the 
exterior  it  often 
appeared,  as  at 
Akthamar,  as  a 
sharply  pointed 
cone.  The  apse 
often  ceased  to  be 


FIG.    91 — AKTHAMAR  (LAKE  VAN). 
SEEN  FROM   THE    SOUTHEAST. 


THE  CHURCH 
(LYNCH) 


salient,  and  be- 
came but  a  tri- 
angular cut  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  use  of  brick  at 
times  disappeared  entirely,  and  the  buildings  were  constructed 
of  homogeneous  cut  stone,  even  the  roof  tiles  being  of  this 
material.  The  exteriors,  in  a  manner  hitherto  unknown  in 
Byzantine  architecture,  were  decorated  with  crisp  cut  relief, 
suggesting  the  earlier  art  of  Syria.  So  great  was  the  origi- 
nality of  this  Georgian  and  Armenian  architecture  that  of  late 
a  theory  has  been  advanced,  not  without  plausibility,  that 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  205 

from  this  region  came  the  creative  genius  which  controlled 
all  the  Byzantine  architecture  of  the  second  golden  age. 

The  "Byzantine  Renaissance."  Byzantium's  brilliant  pros- 
perity under  the  Macedonian  and  Comnene  dynasties  and  the 
second  golden  age  came  to  an  end  in  1204,  when  the  disgraceful 
fourth  crusade  was  diverted  to  Constantinople  and  the  city 
sank  into  ruins.  Not  even  this  great  disaster,  however,  could 
utterly  crush  the  Byzantine  spirit  or  the  vitality  of  Byzantine 
art.  Culture  rose  again  on  the  ashes  of  the  city  and  in  the 
later  thirteenth,  the  fourteenth,  and  the  early  fifteenth  centu- 
ries came  the  period  known  as  the  "Byzantine  Renaissance." 
Constantinople,  however,  was  weak.  Her  scientists  and  men 
of  letters  were  eminent,  but  she  lacked  money  for  architect- 
ural enterprises.  Thus  we  find  the  more  important  buildings 
of  the  last  Byzantine  period  outside  of  Constantinople,  in 
Greece,  in  the  Balkan  states,  in  Asia  Minor.  Divergences 
occur  in  these  buildings,  caused  by  local  taste  and  material, 
but  the  style  still  has  strong  unity.  Moreover,  the  art 
continued  to  develop  and  never  sank  to  mere  repetition  of 
earlier  works. 

Plans.  The  Greek  cross  plan  continued  to  be,  on  the  whole, 
the  favorite.  At  the  same  time  there  was  a  frequent  reversion 
to  the  old  domed  basilican  type.  Especially  at  Trebizond, 
in  such  churches  as  Hagia  Sophia  and  the  Chrysokephalos, 
the  western  arm  of  the  cross  was  lengthened,  aisles  were  added, 
and  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  building  emphasized.  At 
Athos  a  development  suggesting  the  ancient  Syrian  three- 
shell  plan  occurred. 

Elevations.  In  elevation  the  churches  of  this  last  period 
showed  striking  changes.  The  vertical  line  was  unsparingly 
accented.  Frequently,  as  at  Manassia  in  Serbia  (Figs.  79 
and  92),  the  ground  story  was  made  very  high,  and  sub- 
divided by  thin  vertical  engaged  columns  suggesting  narrow 
pilaster  strips.  The  drum  became  startlingly  elongated,  and 
the  dome,  for  safety's  sake,  made  smaller.  In  some  Serbian 
buildings,  for  example  Ravanitsa  (Fig.  80),  Manassia  (Fig.  92), 
and  the  church  of  the  ArchangelsnearUskub.  the  dome  is  almost 
invisible  and  the  drum  has  the  appearance  of  a  slender  tower. 
In  other  cases  the  drum  is  lowered,  the  diameter  of  the  dome 
widened,  and  the  whole  surmounted  with  a  cone.  The  massy 


206        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 


appearance  of  this  form,  as  at  Hagia  Sophia  at  Trebizond, 
makes  it  still  a  striking — almost  donjon-like — feature  of  the 
exterior. 

Decoration.  Decoration  as  well  underwent  a  change. 
Mosaic,  being  very  costly,  was  less  freely  used,  and  the  cheaper 

medium  of  fresco 
came  into  great 
vogue.  Some  of 
the  frescoes,  for 
example  those  at 
Mistra  (the  Perib- 
leptos) ,  bear  com- 
parison with  those 
of  contemporary 
Italy.  On  the  ex- 
terior polychrome 
marble  was  almost 
completely  aban- 
doned, to  give 
place  to  the  richest 
decoration  in  mul- 
ticolored and  pat- 
terned brick  that 
the  style  ever  in- 
vented. At  times 
even  glazed  tiles 
were  intermingled 
with  the  brick, 
and  the  exterior 
of  such  a  church 
as  Saint  Basil's  at 
Arta  is  a  brilliant 

example  of  the  beautiful  effects  which  the  later  Byzantine 
artist  could  get  by  the  refined  color  and  texture  of  his 
surfaces. 

Inspiration.  Of  late  years  several  theories  have  been 
advanced  to  explain  the  inspiration  of  this  extraordinary  last 
burst  of  activity  in  Byzantine  art.  By  far  the  most  plausible 
is  that  western  Europe  at  last  paid  off  a  part  of  its  heavy  debt, 
and  returned  to  Byzantium  something  in  the  way  of  in- 


FIG.   92 — MANASSIA   (SERBIA).       (POKRYCHKIN) 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  207 

spiration.  The  prevalence  of  the  three-aisled  building  in 
Byzantium,  the  almost  Gothic  emphasis  on  the  vertical  line, 
the  resort  to  fresco  such  as  was  common  in  Italy,  all  support 
a  theory  suggested  by  the  close  political  and  cultural  ties 
which  bound  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  century  Constantinople 
to  western  Europe.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  as  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  creative  genius  and  vitality  which  Byzantine 
art  showed  in  its  first  two  great  periods  also  produced  the 
third,  and  remained  at  work  down  to  the  fateful  year  of  1453, 
when  the  weakened  city,  abandoned  by  Christian  Europe, 
surrendered  to  the  Turk. 

Secular  building.  The  early  palace.  Albeit  the  historical 
importance  of  Byzantine  architecture  lies  primarily  in  the 
ecclesiastical  buildings,  the  style  also  showed  great  originality 
and  activity  in  its  secular  works.  The  building  of  great  palaces 
accompanied  the  building  of  great  churches.  Constantine 
set  the  example  by  raising  a  magnificent  palace  in  the  new 
city,  of  which  now  there  is  no  trace,  but  which  must  have 
followed  the  general  lines  laid  down  by  Diocletian  at  Spalato. 
We  know  the  appearance  of  an  early  Byzantine  palace  from 
the  mosaic  in  Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo  at  Ravenna,  representing 
the  palace  of  Theodoric,  now  destroyed.  This  mosaic 
shows  us  a  long,  arcaded  structure  composed  of  a  central  porch 
with  a  gable  and  two  wings.  The  wings  are  two-storied, 
with  square  windows  in  the  second  story  arcade.  Apparently 
exigencies  of  space  suppressed  the  Syrian  court,  and  the 
colonnade  opened  directly  on  the  street. 

Secular  building  in  Justinian's  time.  Shortly  afterward, 
the  reign  of  Justinian  produced  a  great  burst  of  secular  building 
in  Constantinople.  At  this  time  the  Senate  was  built,  all  in 
white  marble,  the  baths  of  Zeuxippus  were  splendidly  decorated 
in  marble  polychrome,  the  baths  of  Arcadius  were  restored, 
and  aqueducts  were  raised  which  rivaled  those  of  the 
Roman  Campagna. 

The  cistern.  The  need  for  storing  water  produced  a  unique 
type  of  civil  building  in  Constantinople:  the  cistern.  The 
earliest  was  apparently  the  Cisterna  Maxima,  constructed 
under  the  forum  in  407.  As  the  size  of  these  cisterns  increased 
they  became  really  important  monuments  of  architecture, 
daring  in  plan  and  delicate  in  detail.  The  cistern  called 


208        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

Pulcheria,  built  in  421,  had  a  surface  of  over  1000  square 
metres  and  the  vault  was  carried  on  thirty  granite  columns. 
In  less  than  a  century,  however,  the  ambitions  of  the  architects 
produced  such  tremendous  works  as  the  cistern  of  Bin-bir- 
direk  (the  thousand  and  one  columns)  with  a  surface  of  over 
3500  square  metres.  The  idea  of  these  colossal  works  came 
from  Alexandria,  but  their  development  in  Constantinople  was 
absolutely  unprecedented.  They  prove  the  engineering  genius 
of  the  Byzantines  to  have  been  no  whit  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Romans. 

Palaces  of  the  second  golden  age.  In  the  second  golden  age 
the  activity  in  secular  building  was  as  great  as  in  the  first. 
Basil  I.  ushered  in  the  age  by  building  a  new  palace,  the 
Cenourgion,  to  the  splendor  of  which  many  writers  have 
testified.  To  this  he  added  many  buildings,  the  Pentacou- 
bouclon,  the  so-called  Pavilion  of  the  Eagle,  the  treasury,  and 
others.  Later  Nicephoras  Phocas  raised  the  Boucoleon  on 
the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  Starting  with  a  small 
building  already  on  the  site,  this  Emperor  produced  a  palace 
at  once  lavish  in  its  appointments  and  donjon-like  in  its 
strength.  Each  generation  added  something  to  the  Sacred 
Palace  or  other  imperial  residences.  In  the  twelfth  century 
the  Sacred  Palace  was  somewhat  neglected,  and  the  Comnenes 
built  the  Blachernae,  a  palace  at  the  end  of  the  Golden  Horn. 
Enthusiastic  accounts  of  crusaders  attest  the  beauty  of  this 
building,  and  in  the  graceful  architectural  fragment  which 
the  Turks  call  the  Tekfour-Serai  we  probably  have  an  extant 
part  of  the  original.  This  ruin  shows  a  refined  pattern  and 
surface  texture  in  brick  and  ashlar  similar  to  that  of  the 
churches  of  this  period. 

The  Sacred  Palace.  Much  has  been  written  about  the 
appearance  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (Fig.  93),  yet  archeologists 
are  still  disputing  as  to  its  plan.  Indeed  the  term  "Sacred 
Palace,"  indicating  as  it  does  a  single  building,  is  confusing. 
The  work  was  a  conglomeration  of  buildings,  lay  and  ecclesi- 
astical, heterogeneous  in  plan,  dimensions,  and  date,  covering 
a  total  area,  roughly  triangular  in  shape,  of  over  400,000 
square  yards.  One  side  was  bounded  by  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
and  one  by  the  Hippodrome,  a  gigantic  structure  1400  feet 
in  length,  easily  capable  of  holding  80,000  persons.  The 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


209 


third  side  faced  the  city,  but  was  protected  from  the  poorer 
quarters  by  terraces  and  gardens.  Within  were  churches, 
fora,  schools,  council  chambers,  gardens,  and  even  a  private 


FIG.  93 — CONSTANTINOPLE.    PLAN  OF  THE  SACRED  PALACE,  RESTORED. 

(EBERSOLT) 


hippodrome.  The  general  effect  must,  therefore,  have  been 
bewilderingly  complicated,  and  not  wholly  unlike  that  of  the 
Kremlin  to-day.  Both  to  the  complication  of  the  plan  and 
the  unbelievable  richness  of  the  decoration  numerous  descrip- 


A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

tions  of  visitors  testify.  The  complexity  of  the  plan  served 
to  exaggerate  the  tremendousness  of  the  site.  Recognizing 
this  the  emperors  were  wont  to  have  visiting  ambassadors 
led  through  hall  and  court,  where  luxury  succeeded  luxury 
and  richness  surpassed  richness,  until  they  finally  reached 
the  royal  presence  in  the  Chrysotriclinium,  an  octagonal 
domed  hall,  decorated,  if  accounts  of  eye-witnesses  can  be 
believed,  in  gold,  enamel,  and  precious  stones  beyond  the 
wildest  dreams  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights. 

Later  palace  building.  After  the  sack  of  the  city  in  1204 
the  Sacred  Palace  never  recovered  its  pristine  splendor. 
Palace  building  received  a  fatal  set-back.  At  the  same  time 
numerous  Prankish  chateaux  sprang  up  in  Byzantine  territory 
and  influenced  Byzantine  civil  architecture.  The  latest 
Byzantine  palaces  partake,  therefore,  more  of  the  fortification 
than  of  the  palace  proper. 

Fortifications.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that 
warlike  architecture  had  been  neglected  in  the  earlier  periods 
of  the  Byzantine  style.  The  willingness  of  the  Byzantine 
architect  to  suppress,  for  reasons  of  defense,  the  graceful  in 
favor  of  the  strong  is  well  proved  by  the  great  enceinte  of 
Constantinople,  much  of  which  dates  back  to  the  reign  of 
Theodosius  II.  (408-450).  Africa  especially  retains  monu- 
ments of  early  Byzantine  military  architecture  which  were, 
in  their  day,  absolutely  impregnable.  Of  such  a  type  are 
the  citadels  of  Lemsa  in  Tunisia,  and  of  Haidra  (Fig.  94).  In 
the  second  golden  age  the  still  extant  works  of  Manuel 
Comnenus  at  Constantinople  show  the  same  power  of  military 
design  at  home. 

The  ensemble.  In  the  period  of  Constantine  and  Justinian 
the  general  appearance  of  Constantinople  must  have  been, 
aside  from  topographical  variations,  not  unlike  that  of  Rome. 
The  Roman  constructive  sense  and  broad  grasp  of  the  essen- 
tials of  city  planning  were  inherited  by  the  Byzantines.  In 
the  later  period,  however,  the  city  must  have  assumed  an 
appearance  of  inchoate  complexity.  Within  the  inclosure  of 
the  Sacred  Palace,  building  after  building  was  added,  until 
all  semblance  of  a  synthetic  plan  was  lost.  Without,  the 
same  lack  of  a  logical  scheme  prevailed  and,  except  for  differ- 
ences in  architectural  detail  and  material,  the  Constantinople 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE 


211 


of  Basil  II. must  have  looked  much  like  the  Stamboul  of  to-day. 
Streets  had  become  narrow  and  irregular,  houses  crowded, 
and  the  broad  planning  of  classical  antiquity  had  given  way 
to  the  apparently  thoughtless  and  illogical  grouping  of  houses 
characteristic  of  so  much  of  the  building  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  dwellings  of  the  rich.     No  examples  of  the  less  palatial 
Byzantine  habitations  remain,  but  illuminated  manuscripts 


FIG.   94 — HAIDRA.      THE   FORTIFICATIONS,   RESTORED.      (DIEHL) 

give  us  some  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy.  They  were  apparently  not  unlike  those  still  to  be 
found  in  the  "dead  cities"  of  Syria.  The  houses  were  of  two 
or  three  stories,  the  facades  ornamented  with  porticoes. 
From  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  century  open  loggias  decorated 
the  upper  stories  and  towers  or  lateral  pavilions  often  flanked 
the  main  building.  Balconies  projected  over  the  street,  and 
the  roofs  were  sometimes  steep,  sometimes  terraced,  and  some- 
times ornamented  with  small  domes.  Windows  were  square, 
with  small  squares  of  glass  set  in  grilles.  The  prevailing 
materials  were  brick  and  marble.  The  facades  were  generally 
of  combined  brick  and  marble,  and  the  floors  of  one  or  the 
other  material.  The  outer  doors  were  of  nail-studded  iron; 


212        A   HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

the  inner  of  wood,  carved,  paneled  and  inset  with  plaques. 
The  better  dwellings  were,  therefore,  both  luxurious  an:l 
graceful. 

The  poorer  quarters.  If,  however,  the  public  buildings  and 
habitations  of  the  rich  were  splendid,  the  dwellings  of  the 
poor  were  of  the  meanest,  and  the  parts  of  the  city  used  by  the 
common  citizens  ill  built,  vilely  planned,  and  worse  kept.  If 
we  may  believe  contemporary  accounts,  such  as  that  of  Eudes 
de  Deuil,  who  visited  the  city  in  1147,  in  the  common  quarters 
the  housetops  often  met  above  the  streets,  and  the  streets 
themselves  were  indescribably  filthy,  at  times  even  barred 
by  pools  of  mud  in  which  men  and  beasts  were  drowned. 
The  odors  were  noisome,  and  the  streets  unlighted  at  night, 
so  that  from  sundown  to  sunup  they  were  wholly  given  over  to 
thieves,  cutthroats,  and  yammering  scavenger  dogs  like  those 
which  infest  Constantinople  to-day.  If  the  reader  could,  by 
some  strained  flight  of  fancy,  imagine  a  combination  of  present 
day  Stamboul,  the  Campo  Marzo  region  in  Rome,  and  the 
Tatar  city  in  Pekin,  he  would  probably  have  a  not  inaccurate 
idea  of  the  ensemble  of  twelfth  century  Constantinople. 

The  influence  of  Byzantine  architecture.  No  discussion  of  the 
Byzantine  style  would  be  complete  without  a  word  about  the 
powerful  influence  which  the  art  exerted  on  contemporaneous 
and  subsequent  architecture.  At  times,  as  in  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(Figs.  79,  80  and  85)  and  Germigny-les-Pres,  as  in  Saint  Front 
de  Perigueux  (Fig.  99)  and  many  of  the  churches  of  Norman 
Sicily,. this  influence  showed  itself  as  little  more  than  imita- 
tion. A  subtler  influence  is  recorded  in  the  acceptance  by  the 
West  of  the  unformulated  principles  which  underlay  both  the 
forms-  of  detail  and  the  constructive  scheme  of  the  Byzantine 
building.  The  Byzantine  architect,  rejecting  all  single  forms 
of  the  classic  capital,  evolved  by  a  gradual  combination  of  all 
the  elements  of  the  classic  capital  a  new  form  suited  to  new 
needs.  The  Gothic  capital  is  but  a  refinement  of  the 
Byzantine,  or  rather  a  further  development  along  the  lines  laid 
down  by  the  Byzantine.  The  Romanesque  and  Gothic 
development  of  the  vault,  too,  was  made  possible  by  the  flexible 
treatment  of  the  vault  inaugurated  by  the  Byzantines.  Even 
the  basic  Gothic  principle,  the  stabilizing  of  a  complex  vaulted 
system  by  means  of  an  equilibrium  of  opposing  thrusts,  finds 


BYZANTINE   ARCHITECTURE  213 

its  antecedent,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  Byzantine  architecture 
of  the  second  golden  age. 

Influence  on  later  styles.  Moreover,  Byzantine  influence  on 
other  styles  was  not  confined  to  the  contemporary  Middle 
Ages.  We  shall  see  that  Renaissance  and  modern  architecture 
are  largely  indebted  to  Byzantium.  In  the  Balkans,  in 
southern  Russia,  and  in  Greece,  where  the  style  was  native, 
the  recurrence  to  it  has  been  constant,  and  such  a  building  as 
the  New  Metropolis  at  Athens,  though  a  debased  imitation  of 
older  work,  has  the  merit  of  being  a  wholly  natural  reversion 
to  a  native  art.  Finally,  even  Saracenic  architecture  must 
acknowledge  a  great  debt  to  Byzantine. 

Significance  of  Byzantine  architecture.  The  importance  of 
Byzantine  architecture  is,  therefore,  threefold.  It  may  be 
regarded  as  an  important  link  between  the  Roman  and 
Romanesque  styles,  as  a  source  of  inspiration  in  contemporary 
and  subsequent  architecture,  and  finally  as  a  powerful  and 
self-sufficient  art  in  itself.  On  the  whole,  writers  have  tended 
to  emphasize  the  first  two  points  of  view  at  the  expense  of  the 
third.  The  result  has  been  a  stressing  of  the  architecture  of 
the  first  golden  age  before  the  development  of  the  great 
medieval  styles  of  western  Europe,  and  a  neglect  of  the  equally 
important  Byzantine  architecture  which  postdates  the  Icono- 
clastic controversy.  The  dynamic  quality  of  the  art  has 
largely  been  overlooked,  and  the  style  invested  with  a  false 
conservatism  which  recent  writers  on  Byzantine  architecture 
are  only  beginning  to  dispel.  It  is  well,  therefore,  especially 
in  a  general  history  of  architecture,  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
the  Byzantine  style  was  not  only  an  architecture  of  transition, 
but  especially  an  independent,  self-sufficient  art  which  showed 
ever  new  vitality  from  the  age  of  the  first  Constantino  in  the 
fourth  century  to  that  of  the  last  in  the  fifteenth,  and,  in  a 
sense,  shows  it  even  to-day. 

CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF   MONUMENTS 

Early  Period,  to  the  Accession  of  Justinian  in  527 

Constantinople,  Palace  of  Constantine. — 323-337. 
Constantinople,  Senate. — 323-337. 
Constantinople,  Cisterna  Maxima. — 407. 


2i4        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Constantinople,  Cisterna  Pulcheria. — 421. 

Constantinople,  Walls  of  Theodosius. — First  half  of  fifth  century. 

Constantinople,  Eski-djouma. — First  half  of  fifth  century. 

Constantinople,  Stoudion  basilica. — 463. 

Ravenna,  Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe. — Begun  before  526. 

Ravenna,  Palace  of  Theodoric. — Begun  before  526. 

First  Golden  Age,  Inaugurated  by  Justinian,  527—726 

Constantinople,  Bin-bir-direk  cistern. — 528. 

Ravenna,  San  Vitale. — 526  or  534-547. 

Salonica,  Hagia  Sophia. — C.  530. 

Constantinople,  Saint  Irene. — 532. 

Constantinople,  Hagia  Sophia — 532-562. 

Cathedral  of  Parenzo  (Dalmatia). — 540. 

Constantinople,  Holy  Apostles. — 536^546. 

Ravenna,  Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo. — 549. 

Constantinople,  Saints   Sergius  and  Bacchus. — First  half  of  sixth 

century. 

Constantinople,  Baths  of  Zeuxippus. — First  half  of  sixth  century. 
Lemsa  (Africa),  Fortifications. — Sixth  century. 
Haidra  (Africa),  Fortifications. — Sixth  century. 
Saint  Gregory,  near  Etschmiadzin  (Armenia). — 640-666. 
Constantinople,  Kalender-hane-djami  (the  Diaconessa  of  Emperor 

Maurice?). — Seventh  century. 
Constantinople,     Hodja  -  moustapha  -  pasha     (Saint     Andrew's). — 

Seventh  century. 
Cathedral  of  Etschmiadzin   (Armenia).  —  Begun  in  fifth,  restored 

in  seventh  century. 

Age  of  Iconodasm,  726—842 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Charlemagne's  Chapel. — 796-804. 
Germigny-les-Pres  (France). — Ninth  century. 

Second  Golden  Age,  Inaugurated  by  Basil  /.,  867-1204 

Constantinople,  "La  Nea"  (Basil  I.).— Before  886. 
Constantinople,  Cenourgion  (Basil  I.). — Before  886. 
Constantinople,  Pentacoubouclon   (Basil  I.). — Before  886. 
Constantinople,   Gul-djami    (Saint    Theodosius). — Second   half   of 

ninth  century. 
Skripou  (Bceotia). — 874. 
Constantinople,  Boucolcon   (Nicephorus  Phocas,  Emperor). — 963- 

969. 

Akthamar,  Lake  Van  (Armenia). — Tenth  century. 
Pitzounda  (Armenia). — Tenth  century.? 


BYZANTINE  ARCHITECTURE  215 

Lavra,  Catholicon. — End  of  tenth  or  beginning  of  eleventh  century. 
Stiris  (Phocis),  Great  Church  of  Saint  Luke. — Beginning  of  eleventh 

century. 

Chios,  Nea  Moni. — Mid-eleventh  century. 
Venice,  Saint  Mark's. — Begun  1063. 
Stiris  (Phocis),  Theotokos  (Small  Church  of  Saint  Luke). — Second 

half  of  eleventh  century. 

Constantinople,  Kilisse-djami. — Second  half  of  eleventh  century. 
Daphni. — End  of  eleventh  century. 
Perigueux  (France),  Saint  Front.— 1120. 
Constantinople,  Pantocrator. — n  24. 
Nauplia,  Nea  Moni. — 1144. 
Athens,  Saint  Theodore. — Mid-twelfth  century. 
Athens,  Little  Metropolis. — Mid-twelfth  century. 
Constantinople,  Palace  of  the  Blachernae  (Manuel  Comnenus). — 

Soon  after  1143. 
Constantinople,  Walls  of  Manuel  Comnenus. — Soon  after  1143. 

Byzantine  Renaissance,  mid-thirteenth  century — 1453 

Arta,  Saint  Basil. — Thirteenth  century. 

Trebizond,  Hagia  Sophia. — Thirteenth  century. 

Trebizond,  Chrysokephalos. — Thirteenth  century. 

Ravanitsa  (Serbia). — 1381. 

Uskub  (Serbia),  Church  of  the  Archangels. — Fourteenth  century. 

Mistra,  Peribleptos. — End  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Manassia  (Serbia). — 1407. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

A.  Michel's  Histoire  del'art,  1905,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  contains  a  brilliant 
summary  of  the  history  of  Byzantine  art,  by  Gabriel  Millet.  C. 
Texier  and  R.  P.  Pullan's  Byzantine  Architecture,  1864,  is  a  monu- 
mental work,  now  out  of  date,  with  excellent  text  and  superb  litho- 
graphic plates  of  a  wide  range  of  Byzantine  monuments  and  details. 
A.  Choisy's  L'art  de  bdtir  chez  les  Byzantins,  1883,  is  an  old  but  au- 
thoritative work,  well  illustrated  and  especially  important  for  Byzan- 
tine construction.  J.  Stryzgowski's  Kleinasien,  1003,  and  Byzanti- 
nische  Denkmaler  are  important  recent  publications  of  research, 
already  noted,  emphasizing  the  Eastern  origin  of  Byzantine  art. 
C.  Diehl's  Manuel  d'art  byzantin,  1910,  an  authoritative,  scholarly, 
up-to-date  handbook,  embodies  the  results  of  ancient  and  modern 
research  in  the  Byzantine  field.  T.  G.  Jackson's  Byzantine  and 
Romanesque  Architecture,  1913,  is.  an  up-to-date,  scholarly,  and 


2i6        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

readable  work,  liberally  illustrated.    Charles  Bayet's  ^r 
188*  is  a  handbook  of  Byzantine  art,  of  great  range  and  c 
though  out  ofdate.     G.  T.  Rivoira's  Le  origini  delta  arcMeUura  lojn- 
S  1901-07,  already  noted,  is  even  more  important  for  Byzantine 
than  for  early  Christian  art.     A.  Venturi's  Storia  dell'  arte  ttahana, 
vol    2    1902,  is  a  scholarly  and  well-illustrated  volume  on  Italian 
Irt  from  the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  centuries,  publishing  much  original 
material  and  important  for  Byzantine  architecture  m  .  taly.    K 
deVerneihl's  L'  architecture  byzant^ne  ^France    ^85^  Chough  out 
of    date,   discusses   in   an   able   way   the   churches   of   Byza  ntine 
character  in  central  France.      W.  $alzenberg's  Altchnsthche  Bau- 
tnMrvon  Konstantinopel  vom  *»  ».  Jahrhundert,  x  8  54,  is 
an  out-of-date  but  authoritative  and  interesting  work.    A^  van 
Millingen's  Byzantine  Churches  in  Constantinople  1912,  is  a  scholarly, 
reaSe,  and  well-illustrated  volume  on  the  churches  o*  Constan- 
tinople;   the  same  author's  Byzantine  Constantinople      899,  ^  an 
interestine  work  on  the  Byzantine  monuments  of  the  city  ot  Uon 
stanTnople      L    de   Beylie's   ^habitation   byzantine,    1902,  with   a 
5^±  in  I9o3!  is  aymonumental  «^^fg^^ 
on  the  Bvzantine  dwelling.    W.  R.  Lethaby  and  H.  bwamso 
Tan  to  Sophfa  ^1894,  an  exhaustive  monograph  on  the  most  important 
f  the  earlier  Byzantine  period,  is  here  mentioned  on  ac- 


buildings  in  the  inclosure.     It  is  the  last  but  perhaps  not  the^ 
word  on  the  subject.     E.  A.  Grosvenor's  Constant^nople    1900    * 
Tpopular  and  readable  book  on  the  city,  with  ^^^f^ff 
mterestine  accounts  of  the  monuments.     G.  Barkers  The  Walls  oj 
X9-,  is  an  interesting  history  and  ^descnp^  weU 
.  B.  Bur    s  Amstory  oj 


,  ^ 

illustrated   of  the  defenses  of  the  city.     J.  B.  Bury  s  A^mstory  oj 
Z  Roman  Empire,  ^  a  history  of  the  empire   will  be 


a  Roman     mre, 

useful  for  those  who  need  to  acquire  the  proper  historical  1 

ground  for  a  study  of  Byzantine  art. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE 

Definition.  A  discussion  of  Romanesque  architecture 
inevitably  begins  with  a  definition  of  the  term  Romanesque. 
The  name,  though  an  accepted  one,  and  apt  when  understood, 
is  nevertheless  confusing  to  the  beginner.  Comprehension 
comes  most  quickly  when  we  compare  Romanesque  architect- 
ure to  the  Romance  languages.  After  the  break-up  of  the 
Roman  Empire  there  ensued  a  period  of  cultural  confusion. 
From  this  confusion  homogeneous  nationalities  slowly  emerged. 
Based  on  Latin  civilization,  quickened  by  northern  energy, 
modified  and  differentiated  one  from  another  by  conditions 
of  race  and  geography,  nations  arose.  These  nations  possessed 
each  a  speech  also  based  upon  Latin  yet  differing  from  the 
speech  of  other  nations  similarly  based.  Thus  the  Romance 
languages,  reminiscent  of  Rome,  yet  individual  and  national 
in  character,  came  into  being.  Precisely  the  same  phenomena 
appear  in  architecture,  based  upon  Roman  as  a  point  of 
departure,  but  differing  from  it,  each  school  being  individual 
and  expressive  of  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  race  which  pro- 
duced it,  yet  all  bound  by  a  common  root  and  thus  included 
in  a  common  classification:  Romanesque. 

Date.  This  much  understood,  new  difficulties  begin.  From 
the  break-up  of  Roman  civilization  in  the  fifth  century  to  the 
clearly  defined  rise  of  the  nations  about  1000  there  occurred 
a  formative  period  in  which  chaos  was  more  frequent  than 
order,  yet  in  this  period  language  was  spoken  and  written, 
buildings  erected.  At  times,  as  during  the  reign  of  Charle- 
magne (the  Carolingian  Renaissance),  civilization  in  this 
period  was  even  brilliant.  Should  one  call  the  speech  of  this 
period  Romance;  its  architecture  Romanesque?  In  very 


218        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

general  classifications  all  west-European  architecture,  outside 
of  mere  Byzantine  imitation,  roughly  from  500  to  1 1 50,  is  called 
Romanesque.  The  field  may  then  be  subdivided,  the  period 
of  later  development  from  1000  to  1150  placed  by  itself,  and 
the  earlier  architecture  classified  as  Carolingian,  Carolingian 
and  Ottonian,  or  even  pre-Romanesque.  Once  the  distinction 
is  comprehended  the  danger  disappears. 

Relation  of  Romanesque  to  Gothic.  The  comprehension  and 
appreciation  of  Romanesque  architecture  has  been  more 
hindered,  albeit  innocently,  by  writers  on  Gothic  architecture 
than  by  anything  else.  One  of  the  most  brilliant,  Quicherat, 
summed  up  the  style  in  the  clever  yet  misleading  definition 
that  has  appeared  in  every  subsequent  book  on  the  subject. 
According  to  the  French  archeologist,  Romanesque  is  an 
architecture  that,  retaining  elements  of  Roman,  has  ceased  to 
be  Roman,  and  anticipating  elements  of  Gothic,  is  not  yet 
Gothic.  Every  phrase  of  this  definition  is  true,  yet  its  total 
is  pernicious,  as  it  overlooks  the  self-sufficiency  of  the  Roman- 
esque style  and  relegates  it  to  the  position  of  a  mere  architect- 
ure of  transition.  Nothing  more  clearly  shows  its  weakness 
than  its  over-emphasis  of  organic  Romanesque  styles,  such  as 
Lombard,  which  led  up  to  Gothic,  and  its  utter  inapplicability 
to  some  of  the  most  monumental,  if  inorganic,  styles  such  as 
the  Tuscan. 

Organic  and  inorganic  architecture.  The  distinction  between 
what  is  called  an  organic  and  an  inorganic  style  of  architecture 
may  well  be  made  here.  An  organic  architecture  is  a  vaulted 
one,  the  vaults  supported  by  ribs,  buttresses,  and  piers,  and 
the  latter  deliberately  arranged  with  sole  reference  to  the  needs 
of  supporting  the  vault  and  opposing  its  thrusts.  Such  an 
architectural  system,  so  often  compared  to  the  bony  structure 
of  a  living  organism,  deserves  the  adjective  organic.  An 
architectural  system  may,  however,  be  more  or  less  convincingly 
organic.  The  omission  of  one  or  more  structural  ribs  in  a 
vault,  the'  maladjustment  of  one  or  more  supports  to  the 
thrusts  which  they  are  designed  to  meet,  may  mar  the  organic 
feeling  of  the  system  but  not  destroy  it.  On  the  other  hand 
a  very  splendid  building  may  be  completely  inorganic,  like  the 
cathedral  of  Pisa,  which  is  covered  with  a  timber  roof  carried 
on  a  simple  wall.  Romanesque  architecture  must,  therefore, 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          219 

be  studied  for  itself  alone  and  not  as  a  result  of  what  has  gone 
before  or  as  an  excuse  for  what  is  coming  after. 

National  feeling.  This  point  must  be  insisted  upon  the  more 
strongly,  since  so  much  of  the  charm  of  the  study  of 
Romanesque  comes  from  the  variety  of  the  style.  The  causes 
of  these  variations  were,  of  course,  historical  and  geographical. 
In  the  early  period,  so  often  called  pre-Romanesque,  from  500 
to  1000,  European  architecture  showed  considerable  homo- 
geneity, but  naturally  with  the  growth  of  separate  nations 
came  a  growth  of  national  styles;  and  within  the  nations, 
often  sharply  divided  into  districts  which  were  themselves 
regna  in  regno,  there  grew  up  local  styles  of  great  individuality 
and  charm.  Thus  Romanesque  is,  outside  of  France  where 
organic  Gothic  developed,  perhaps  the  most  distinctly  national 
of  each  country's  architectural  styles. 

Ecclesiastical  interest.  The  study  of  Romanesque  is  much 
simplified  by  one  fact.  In  no  other  style,  not  even  Gothic,  is 
the  interest  so  confined  to  ecclesiastical  architecture.  So  true 
is  this  that  in  a  brief  discussion  of  medieval  architecture, 
secular  architecture  is  most  profitably  studied  in  its  Gothic 
aspects,  leaving  the  student  free  in  the  Romanesque  period  to 
concentrate  on  the  vastly  more  important  church  and  monastic 
buildings. 

Corporate  quality.  The  style  was  not  only  a  natural  and 
religious  expression,  it  was  an  expression  of  the  common  ideals 
of  the  whole  people.  In  other  words  it  was  distinctly 
corporate.  A  magister  operarius  directed  the  works,  but  great 
freedom  was  allowed  his  swarms  of  assisting  craftsmen.  The 
result  was  variation  and  inequality  of  workmanship,  but  for 
that  very  reason  a  freshness  lamentably  lacking  in  many  an 
otherwise  impeccable  modern  work. 

Architectural  refinement.  This  freshness,  which  seems  to 
invest  Romanesque,  and  indeed  all  medieval  buildings,  may 
come  partly  as  well  from  the  assymmetrical  quality  of  the  work. 
Whether  or  not  the  variations  in  plan,  in  the  heights  of  columns 
and  of  arches  and  the  like,  which  may  be  observed  in  practi- 
cally all  medieval  buildings,  is  the  result  of  inaccurate  measure- 
ments, settling  of  members,  or  deliberate  design  after  the 
manner  of  Greek  architectural  refinements,  the  result  is  a 
living  quality,  a  sense  of  movement  and  picturesqueness  that 


220        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

banishes  all  monotony  and  keeps  the  building  vitally 
interesting  when  more  painstaking  and  elaborate  works  seem 
dry  as  dust. 

General  characteristics.  Though  the  plans  of  Romanesque 
churches  are  widely  diverse  (Fig.  99),  all  are  a  development  of 
the  arrangement  with  special  reference  to  liturgical  needs 
embodied  in  the  Christian-Roman  basilica.  In  general, 
buildings  of  the  central  type  were  confined  to  baptistries 
and  tombs,  and  when  churches  of  this  type  occur,  they 
represent  Byzantine  influence.  The  round  arch,  as  opposed 
to  the  Gothic  pointed  arch,  is  a  general  characteristic 
of  Romanesque,  though  many  examples  of  pointed  arches 
occur  in  the  style. 

Classification.  Although  many  classifications  of  Roman- 
esque have  been  offered,  the  main  divisions  of  the  movement 
at  the  period  of  its  great  development  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  are  fairly  clear.  Italy  had  a  style  of  her  own, 
subdivided  roughly  into  the  northern,  central,  and  southern. 
Germany,  too,  had  an  individual  style,  on  the  whole  semi- 
organic  in  the  Rhine  Valley  and  inorganic  elsewhere.  France 
offers  the  most  complicated  problem  of  classification,  with  no 
less  than  six  main  subdivisions  in  her  Romanesque  art.  In  the 
south  we  find  a  distinct  Provencal  style,  highly  classic  in 
feeling.  Farther  north  we  find  the  Auvergnat,  most  precocious 
of  the  French  schools,  which  may  be  classified  with  that  of 
Languedoc,  the  artistic  center  of  the  latter  being  at  Toulouse. 
In  Aquitaine  another  school  grew  up,  showing  marked  Byzan- 
tine affiliations,  although  some  modern  writers  have  urged  an 
autochthonous  growth  for  the  Aquitanian  churches.  Still 
another  subdivision  may  be  made  of  Burgundyj  with  its 
emphasis  on  monastic  architecture.  In  the  north  two  highly 
organic  styles  developed,  the  most  precocious  being  the 
Norman,  the  most  finished  that  of  the  district  around  Paris 
called  the  He  de  France.  England  afforded  a  very  homo- 
geneous type  of  Romanesque,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
an  offshoot  of  Norman,  and  Spain  had  an  individual  style 
largely  imported  from  Languedoc,  though  influenced,  espe- 
cially in  the  south,  by  Eastern  architecture. 

Carolingian  architecture.  A  closer  examination  of  the  style 
in  its  various  manifestations  must  begin  of  course  with  the 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          221 

art  which  we  have  called  Carolingian  or  pre-Romanesque,  or 
which  might  perhaps  better  be  called  by  a  more  neutral  and 
less  descriptive  term — the  art  of  the  dark  ages.  This  art, 
though  occasionally  it  takes  on  something  of  a  national  aspect, 
as  in  the  Saxon  architecture  of  England,  was  European  rather 
than  national.  Moreover,  some  of  the  most  important 
monuments  of  the  style,  like  Charlemagne's  chapel  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (Figs.  79  and  85)  or  the  church  of  Germigny-les-Pres, 
we  may  pass  over  lightly,  since  they  only  emphasize  how 
closely  at  times  Byzantine  architecture  was  copied. 

New  developments.  There  was,  on  the  other  hand,  much 
building  in  the  period  which  strikes  a  new  note.  The  basilican 
plan  was  not  merely  used,  it  was  developed.  Apses  were  often 
added  at  the  west  end,  free-standing  towers  or  turrets  were 
included,  and  often  the  bema  was  exaggerated  to  produce 
the  T  form  of  plan  so  common  in  German  architecture  of  the 
Carolingian  epoch  (Salvatorskapelle,  Frankfort).  With  the 
accumulation  of  relics,  the  need  for  more  altar  space  led  to  a 
multiplication  of  chapels,  in  the  form  of  absidioles.  Sometimes 
these  radiated  from  the  rounded  east  end  of  the  church  (Saint 
Martin,  Tours),  sometimes  they  were  given  a  place  in  the 
T-shaped  bema.  With  the  elaboration  of  the  liturgy, 
ceremonial  demanded  an  ambulatory  for  processions  round  the 
apsidal  end,  and  this  important  member  was  included.  The 
diaconicon  and  prothesis  of  the  early  Christian  basilica  soon 
became  the  sacristy  and  vestry  of  the  later  works. 

Saint  Gall.  By  far  the  most  illuminating  example  of 
Carolingian  architecture  is  the  ninth  century  monastery  of 
Saint  Gall  (Switzerland)  known  to  us  by  a  manuscript  plan 
(Fig.  95).  This  drawing  shows  the  main  characteristics  of 
the  projected  monastic  church  and  the  subordinate  buildings 
about  it.  The  church  itself  is  of  the  modified  basilican  plan, 
with  three  aisles,  an  eastern  and  a  western  apse,  two  flanking 
western  towers,  an  exaggerated  bema,  ambulatory  about  the 
eastern  apse,  and  flanking  vestry  and  secretary's  room.  The 
complicated  plan  of  Saint  Gall  is  useful,  too,  in  emphasizing 
the  importance  of  the  monastery  and,  indeed,  the  strength  of 
the  monastic  system  in  this  period.  The  church  is  but  the 
most  prominent  building  among  a  host  of  others.  About  it 
are  packed  separate  structures,  shops,  baths,  kitchens,  stables, 


222        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


hospitals,  servants'  and  guests'  quarters,  vegetable  and  flower 
gardens,  in  fact  everything  which  could  contribute  to  make 
the  monastery  a  self-sufficient,  self-sustaining  community. 


I— 

d 

•—  —  —  . 

D 

—  i 

Existing  monuments.  We  are  not,  however,  confined  to 
plans  for  our  knowledge  of  the  architecture  of  the  dark  ages. 
Many  extant  monuments,  though  usually  damaged  and 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          223 

marred  by  alteration,  remain  to  show  us  what  the  original 

work  was  like.     In  France  at  Beauvais  the  so-called  Basse- 

ceuvre  is  one  of  the  best  known  examples  of  the  architecture 

of  the  dark  ages,  though  the  building  is  so  severe  in  design, 

with  its  plain  walls  and  timber  roof,  that  it  aids  little  in  the 

study  of  Carolingian  buildings.     Perhaps  the  most  highly 

developed  type  of  Carolingian 

church  is  that  of  Montier-en- 

Der  (Upper  Marne),  where  a 

large  proportion  of  the  tenth 

century  building  is  preserved 

for  the  student.      Among  the 

many  German  examples  of  this 

art    perhaps    the    one    most 

worth  emphasizing  is  Lorsch 

(Rhine   Valley,  near   Worms, 

Fig.  96).     Here  the  facade  of 

the  basilican  gate  is  preserved 

in  its  original  form. 

Carolingian  decoration. 
These  fragments  show  us  other 
innovations  and  contributions 
made  to  architecture  by  this 
style,  the  most  striking  being 
the  triangular  decoration,  an 
easily  recognized  characteristic 
of  the  architecture  all  over 
Europe .  Windows  were  framed 
in  triangles,  gable -like  trian- 
gular decoration  applied  in  re- 
lief to  the  walls,  and  the  walls 

themselves  composed  of  lozenges,  sometimes  vari-hued,  with 
the  emphasis  on  triangular  form.  The  important  billet  mold 
appeared  for  the  first  time,  and  the  window  design  of  two 
lights,  separated  by  a  column  and  embraced  by  an  arch,  is 
reiterated  and  handed  on  to  Romanesque  and  Gothic.  This 
form  may  well  have  originated  in  the  campanili  of  Carolingian 
Italy. 

Pre-Romanesque  architecture  of  England.     On  account  of 
geographical  conditions,  the  pre-Romanesque  architecture  of 


FIG.  96 — LORSCH.   ONE  BAY  OF 
THE  BASILICAN  GATE 


224        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

England  shows  an  individualistic  tendency.  Such  monuments 
as  Earl's  Barton  (Fig.  97)  are  not  to  be  confused  with  con- 
temporary continental  monuments,  though  they  were  founded 
on  Roman  traditions,  modified  by  barbarian  ideas.  Towers 
were  frequent,  the  angles  re-enforced  by  the  very  characteristic 

Saxon  long-and-short  work, 
of  stone  slabs  embedded  al- 
ternately horizontally  and 
vertically.  Walls  were  also 
decorated  with  strongly 
salient  strips  of  stone,  some 
placed  vertically  and  running 
from  the  ground  to  the  sum- 
mit, some  banded  horizon- 
tally round  the  building. 
Openings  were  divided  by 
clumsy  wall  shafts,  almost 
barrel-shaped  and  strongly 
suggesting  wooden  forms. 
The  masonry  handling  in 
the  Saxon  buildings  was  ex- 
tremely rude,  but  the  style 
was  sturdy  and  might  well 
have  developed  into  one  of 
great  beauty  had  its  evolu- 
IIG.  97— EARL'S  BARTON.  THE  TOWER  tion  not  been  arrested  by 

the  Norman  conquest. 

Pre-Romanesque  architecture  of  Spain.  Geography  affected 
the  Carolingian  architecture  of  Spain  as  well.  The  peninsula, 
like  the  island  of  Sicily,  was  always  a  battle-ground  between 
races  and  civilizations,  and  a  bridge  over  which  Oriental 
influence  entered  Europe.  The  Spanish  architecture  of  the 
dark  ages,  like  that  of  the  north,  developed  the  basilican 
plan,  but  showed  decidedly  individualistic  tendencies  in 
arrangement  of  detail  and  especially  in  decoration.  Barbaric 
elements  came  with  the  Visigothic  occupation,  and  to  them 
were  soon  added  a  decided  Oriental  influence,  especially  in 
decoration.  Sassanian  ideas  crossed  the  straits  of  Gibraltar 
as  easily  as  Tarik  himself.  As  a  result  we  find  horseshoe 
arches,  fluted  scallop  shells,  and  other  details  which  give  the 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          225 

architecture  a  semi-exotic  character.  Extant  monuments  are 
abundant.  Among  the  most  interesting  may  be  named  the 
church  of  Santullano  (Oviedo),  San  Miguel  de  Linio  (near 
Oviedo),  and  Santa  Maria  de  Naranco  (Fig.  98),  near  San 
Miguel. 

Architectural   activity   about   1000   A.D.     Although   undue 
importance  has  been  given  to  the  effect  on  building  of  the  safe 


FIG.   98 — SANTA   MARIA   DE    NARANCO.      PLAN 

passage  of  the  year  1000,  when  so  many  people,  relying  on  a 
passage  in  the  Apocalypse,  believed  the  end  of  the  world  was 
at  hand,  the  date  is,  in  round  numbers,  a  good  one  for  the 
beginning  of  Romanesque  architecture  proper.  Building 
received  an  extraordinary  impetus  about  that  time.  The  fact 
may  be  accounted  for  in  many  ways,  but  chiefly  by  the  growth 
of  the  individual  nations  and  the  economic  prosperity  which 
their  comparatively  orderly  governments  insured. 

Priority.  In  this  later  Romanesque,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
France  each  claims  priority  for  its  own  style,  and  the  contro- 
versy is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  almost  all  the  monuments 
have  suffered  from  repair,  restoration,  addition,  and  alteration 
more  or  less  complete.  The  majority  cannot  be  dated  by 
documents  and  the  minority  which  can  may  have  suffered 
from  a  subsequent,  undated  alteration.  In  general  Brutail's 
rule  is  excellent:  a  documented  building  cannot  be  earlier 
than  the  date  of  its  document,  but  may  be,  and  generally  is, 


226        A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

later.  The  critic  must  proceed  with  extreme  caution,  checking 
documentary  against  internal  evidence,  and  vice  versa, 
avoiding  as  far  as  possible  the  mistakes  which  come  from  pre- 
conceived ideas,  and  above  all  steeling  himself  against  the 
appeals  of  a  patriotic  bias. 

Lombard  Romanesque.  On  weighing  the  evidence,  the 
oldest  theory  seems  not  only  the  most  convenient  but  the 
most  plausible,  and  we  may  assume  the  priority  of  Lombard 
Romanesque  and  begin  our  discussion  with  that  style.  This 
gives  the  credit  of  creative  genius  to  Italy,  but  insists  upon  the 
necessity  of  Germanic  (Lombard)  blood  to  quicken  this  genius. 
Opponents  of  the  theory  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  Lombard 
architecture  as  designed  in  the  eleventh  century  is  highly 
organic,  that  the  style  soon  lost  this  organic  quality,  that  the 
movement  died  prematurely,  and  that  Italian  architecture  has 
always  been  distinguished  from  northern  by  its  fondness  for 
inorganic  forms,  but  all  these  phenomena  may  be  explained 
by  the  weakening  of  the  Lombard  stock  and  the  commercial 
decline  of  Lombardy  coincident  with  the  struggle  between 
the  empire  and  the  papacy. 

Characteristics.  The  ribbed  vault.  What  then  were  the  main 
characteristics  of  this  architecture?  Since  it  was  organic  it 
was,  of  course,  vaulted,  the  favorite  form  being  the  domical 
groin  vault.  This  form  we  have  seen  developed  in  Byzantine 
architecture,  as  in  the  vaults  over  the  aisles  of  Hagia  Sophia, 
from  the  heavy  concrete  vaults  of  the  Romans.  To  the  simple 
groin  vault  the  Lombard  architecture  added  strongly  salient 
ribs,  reinforcing  the  groin  angles  and  binding  the  vault  sides. 
They  thus  created  a  set  of  six  ribs  in  all:  two  longitudinal  or 
wall  ribs;  two  transverse  which  crossed  the  nave  at  right 
angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  building;  and  two  diagonal  or 
groin  ribs,  which  met  in  the  center  of  the  vault  and  divided 
it  into  four  cells.  The  advantage  of  these  ribs  can  hardly  be 
exaggerated.  They  could  be  built  separately  and  act  as 
centering  for  the  construction  of  the  web.  They  were  inde- 
pendent of  the  latter,  which  rested  largely  upon  them,  and 
thus  the  web  could  be  thinned  and  the  vault  shell  made  much 
lighter.  They  concentrated  the  vault  thrusts  at,  or  near,  the 
springing  of  the  ribs,  where  the  architects  contrived  to  meet 
them  with  salient  pier  buttresses,  and  they  divided  the  whole 


MONF.EALE 


MORJENVAU 


MAINZ 
FIG.   99 — PLANS   OF    ROMANESQUE   CHURCHES 


228        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

vault  of  a  building  into  separate  compartments  or  bays,  so 
that  a  crack  or  fault  in  one  bay  was  not  liable  to  spread  to 
another. 

Compound  supports.  Such  a  modified  vault  demanded  a 
modified  support.  An  aggregate  of  ribs  of  different  sizes, 
springing  in  different  directions,  could  be  gathered  only 
clumsily  on  a  round  column  or  a  square  pier.  A  compound 
pier  was  needed  and  produced.  In  Sant'  Ambrogio  at  Milan 
(Fig.  101),  for  example,  we  find  a  pier  compounded  with  an 
engaged  pilaster  on  the  nave  side  to  bear  the  transverse  rib, 
flanked  by  two  engaged  shafts  to  carry  the  diagonal  ribs.  On 
the  northern  and  southern  faces  an  engaged  pilaster  carries 
the  longitudinal  rib,  and  against  it  an  engaged  column  bears 
the  arches  of  the  ground  story  archivolt.  On  the  aisle  side 
an  engaged  pilaster  and  shaft  carry  respectively  the  transverse 
and  diagonal  ribs  of  the  aisle  vaults.  The  capitals  of  these 
shafts  face  in  the  direction  in  which  the  ribs  spring,  hence  the 
capitals  of  the  shafts  which  carry  the  diagonals  are  set  obliquely 
to  the  main  axis  of  the  building.  In  short,  logic  appears  in 
every  member,  and  structural  logic,  a  term  we  shall  often  be 
forced  to  use,  is  emphasized. 

The  alternate  system.  The  same  structural  logic  inspired 
another  characteristic  of  Lombard  architecture,  destined  to 
have  far-reaching  influence  on  later  styles:  the  alternate 
system.  On  plan  the  naves  were  roughly  twice  the  width  of 
the  aisles.  It  occurred  logically  to  the  architects  that  by 
having  two  bays  in  the  aisles  to  balance  one  in  the  nave  they 
could  make  their  vaults  square  (Sant'  Ambrogio,  Fig.  99). 
This  necessitated,  however,  an  intermediate  pier  to  carry  the 
ribs  of  the  aisle  vaults  where  their  springing  did  not  meet 
those  of  the  nave  vaults.  Obviously  this  intermediate  pier 
did  not  need  the  complicated  form  or  the  robustness  of  the  main 
piers,  hence  smaller  and  simpler  piers  alternated  between 
larger  and  more  complicated  ones,  and  the  alternate  system 
of  vaults  and  piers  was  created.  This  system  was  used  with 
great  success  in  Romanesque  and  Gothic  architecture  when  two 
bays  of  the  aisle  balanced  one  bay  of  the  nave. 

The  pilaster  strip.  A  new  structural  system  required  new 
members,  therefore  the  pilaster  strip,  whether  against  a  pier 
to  receive  a  member  of  the  vaulting  system,  or  appearing  on 


230        A  HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

the  exterior  as  a  buttress,  received  unprecedented  develop- 
ment. 

Decoration.  Aside  from  the  fundamentally  organic  quality  of 
the  Lombard  building,  which  is  its  most  important  character- 
istic, the  style  developed  a  very  original  decorative  scheme. 
Corbels  were  used  unsparingly.  Arched  corbel  tables  were 
run  under  the  eaves  and  following  the  rake  of  the  pitched  gable 
roofs.  Decoration  was  attained  by  means  of  arcades,  some- 
,  times  open,  but  more  often  blind. 

Doors  were  enriched  with  porches, 
covered  with  gables  supported  by 
columns,  which  were  themselves 
carried  on  the  backs  of  sculpt- 
ured lions.  Sculpture,  some- 
times of  a  very  rude  sort,  some- 
times with  Byzantine  refinement, 
played  a  not  unimportant  part, 
but  it  was  chiefly  confined  to 
portals,  lintels,  capitals,  and  the 
like.  On  the  exterior  color  was 
generally  eschewed.  For  decora- 
tive effect  on  the  exterior  the 
builders  relied  on  architectural 
detail,  carving,  and  differentia- 
tion of  textures  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  fairly  monochromatic 
material.  Mosaic  and  marble 
veneer  were  excluded  from  the 

FIG.  IOI — MILAN.      SANT     AM-        •     ,       .  ,  ,. 

BROGCO.     DRAWING  OF  ONE     mtenors,  but  these  were  enlivened 
BAY  SHOWING  VAULT  RIBS  AND     with  painting,  now  almost  wholly 

SUPPORTS.        (MOORE)  gonG)  whkh  must>  ifl  ^  original> 

have  been  garish.  Further  enlivenment  of  the  interior  was 
obtained  by  rich  church  furniture,  sometimes  of  carved 
marble,  or  backed  with  ivory,  sometimes  of  exquisitely 
modeled  stucco,  and  at  times  even  incrusted  with  silver, 
gold,  and  enamel. 

San?  Ambrogio  at  Milan.  Turning  to  the  monuments 
which  exhibit  the  style,  we  find  the  best  known  and  most 
perfect  example  in  Milan  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Ambrogio 
(Figs.  99,  100,  101,  102,  and  103).  This  building  has  of  late 


Copyright  by  Macmillan  &  Co. 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          231 

years  figured  largely  in  archeological  dispute.  It,  and  the 
neighboring  and  equally  typical  San  Michele  of  Pavia,  were 
long  considered  to  date  from  the  mid-eleventh  century, 
but  modern  archeology  tends  to  date  the  vaults  of  Sant' 


FIG.     I O2 — MILAN. 


SANT      AMBROGIO.       INTERIOR     LOOKING     TOWARD 
THE    APSE 


Ambrogio  from  the  second  quarter  of  the  twelfth.  They 
would  thus  be  antedated  by  Romanesque  monuments  of 
Normandy.  The  point  is  not  as  important  as  at  first  appears, 
for  the  form  of  the  vaults  would  have  been  determined  by  the 
time  the  first  tier  of  stones  in  the  piers  was  placed.  The  piers 
themselves  reveal  this.  Moreover,  such  finished  monuments 
could  not  spring  spontaneously  into  being,  but  would  imply 
a  long  development  of  experimental  building  before  them, 
and  modern  research  has  revealed  a  number  of  examples  of 
ribbed  vaults  of  the  eleventh  century  in  Lombardy,  some 
of  them  even  constructed  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 

century. 
9 


232         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Plan  and  elevation.  In  plan  (Fig.  99)  Sant'  Ambrogio  is 
basilican,  with  three  groin  vaulted  bays  in  the  nave,  a  crossing 
with  an  octagonal  lantern,  and  a  short  choir  of  half  a  bay. 
Two  bays  in  the  aisles  correspond  to  one  in  the  nave.  The 
eastern  termination  has  a  great  semicircular  apse,  flanked  by 
two  smaller  apses  of  the  same  shape,  on  the  axis  of  the  aisles. 


FIG.    IO3 — MILAN.      SANT     AMBROGIO.      EXTERIOR 


This  form,  typically  Carolingian,  surely  belongs  to  the  ninth 
century  building.  There  is  no  clerestory,  the  space  being 
occupied  by  a  large  triforium  gallery,  the  vaults  of  which 
receive  the  thrusts  of  the  nave  vaults  and  transmit  them  to 
the  salient  pier  buttresses  attached  to  the  walls.  The  nave 
vaults  (Fig.  100),  very  domical,  have  a  full  complement  of 
transverse  longitudinal  and  diagonal  ribs.  The  aisle  vaults 
are  groined  without  diagonal  ribs.  The  facade  shows  an  open 
narthex,  with  an  open  gallery  above  it.  The  first  story  is 
divided  from  the  second  by  a  horizontal  string-course,  with  an 


ROMANESQUE   ARCHITECTURE          233 

arched  corbel  table,  and  a  similar  corbel  table  follows  the 
rake  of  the  gable.  Pilaster  strips  to  the  first  story,  and 
engaged  shafts  to  the  roof,  divide  the  facade  vertically  into 
five  sections.  The  octagonal  lantern  is  decorated  with  two 
open  galleries,  and  attached  to  the  church  is  a  square  campanile 
reinforced  at  the  angles  by  pilaster  strips,  divided  horizontally 
by  string-courses  with  corbel  tables,  and  vertically  by  engaged 


FIG.    104 — VERONA.      SAN   ZENO.      GENERAL   VIEW 


columns.     The  church  has  an  atrium  with  vaulted  portico 
which  prevents  a  distant  view  of  the  facade. 

Architecture  outside  of  Milan.  The  farther  removed  it  was 
from  Milan  the  less  organic  Lombard  architecture  tended  to 
become.  San  Michele  of  Pavia,  to  be  sure,  exhibits  an 
organic  feeling  fully  the  equal  of  Sant'  Ambrogio.  Perhaps 
the  most  original  church  after  these  two  was  Sant'  Abondio  at 
Como,  which  affords  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and  monumental 
designs  of  the  style.  This  building  has  a  fivefold  vertical 
division  of  the  fagade,  corresponding  to  the  five  aisles  of  the 


334        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

interior,  a  well-proportioned  clerestory,  and  fine  twin  campanili 
symmetrically  arranged.  It  is,  however,  unvaulted. 

The  Maestri  Comacini.  One  might  expect  monumental 
architecture  at  Como  and,  indeed,  throughout  Lombardy,  on 
account  of  the  Maestri  Comacini,  a  famous  band  of  workmen 
first  mentioned  by  the  Lombard  King  Rotari  (636-652),  the 
name  of  which  suggests  an  origin  on  a  little  island,  "Isola 
Comacina, "  in  Lake  Como.  The  importance  of  this  myste- 
rious band  has  probably  been  exaggerated,  but  there  seems 
little  doubt  that  it  was  largely  influential  both  in  the  creation 
and  in  the  spreading  abroad  of  the  Lombard  style. 

Reversion  to  inorganic  type.  Throughout  northern  Italy 
the  Lombard  style  held  sway,  stretching  west  into  Piedmont 
and  east  into  Emilia  and  the  Veneto.  In  later  monuments, 
however,  as  well  as  in  those  distant  from  Milan,  there  was  a 
reversion  to  an  inorganic  type.  At  the  same  time  the  works 
tended  to  become  more  monumental,  more  showy.  Parma 
cathedral  (1117),  with  its  lofty  if  inept  vaults  bound  with 
tie-rods,  its  broad  facade,  its  soaring  campanile,  has,  at  least, 
a  superficial  impressiveness  that  is  denied  the  more  organic 
but  less  obtrusive  Sant'  Ambrogio.  Similarly  Modena  (conse- 
crated 1184),  on  account  of  well-proportioned  facade  and 
profuse  sculpture,  is  more  monumental  in  effect  than  the 
Milanese  building. 

San  Zeno,  Verona.  Perhaps  the  most  pleasing  and  the 
least  organic  of  all  Lombard  Romanesque  buildings  is  San 
Zeno  at  Verona  (consecrated  1138,  Fig.  104).  This  church 
has  probably  the  most  satisfactory  proportions  of  any  building 
of  its  class.  Its  portal  is  ennobled  by  a  gabled  porch  of  the 
type  popular  in  this  style,  and  quite  probably  invented  in 
Verona.  The  exterior  is  further  enhanced  by  a  free-standing 
campanile,  decorated  with  vertical  pilaster  strips  and  hori- 
zontal strips  of  alternating  red  and  white  marble.  The 
interior  with  its  great  height  and  raised  crypt  is  impressive, 
but  the  inorganic  quality  of  the  building  is  revealed  by  its 
timber  roof,  trussed  after  the  manner  of  the  frame  of  a  ship, 
and  still  retaining  faint  traces  of  its  original  painted 
decorations. 

Tuscan  Romanesque.  Farther  south  we  next  come  to  the 
architecture  of  central  Italy  which,  for  convenience,  we  may 


236        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

call  Tuscan,  though  it  overstepped  the  limits  of  what  is  now 
the  Tuscan  province.  The  student  will  at  once  be  struck  with 
the  inorganic  quality  of  the  style.  The  plans  are  chiefly 
basilican,  and  the  architects  strongly  preferred  the  timber  roof 
to  a  vaulted  structure.  At  the  same  time  the  buildings  were 
often  extremely  monumental  in  size  and  striking  in  decoration. 
In  lieu  of  organic  originality  the  Tuscan  Romanesque  offered 
a  gorgeousness  in  striking  contrast  to  the  comparatively  drab 
appearance  of  the  art  of  the  north. 

Decoration,  general  character.  This  effect  was  obtained 
principally  by  means  of  polished  marble  panels,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  arcades,  blind  and  open,  applied  to  the  exterior.  The 
exterior  of  such  a  building  as  the  cathedral  of  Pisa  is  covered 


:^-^m-~m-.:~lt~m§::-»"~-H  : 
••:'  X  X  ':•-:  y  <  >•'  '• 
.;X;">t-^X  ::»-  »  .  *:  * 


FIG.    106 — PISA.      CATHEDRAL.      PLAN 


with  arcades,  and  the  material  used  is  colored  marble  applied 
in  panels,  squares,  lozenges,  and  all  manner  of  pure  design, 
so  brilliant  in  color  as  literally  to  be  dazzling  (Fig.  105). 
Interiors  were  generally  basilican,  the  walls  enlivened  with 
horizontal  strips  of  light  and  dark.  Domes  over  the  crossing 
were  common,  but  nave  vaults  rare.  At  times  one  feels  a 
certain  amount  of  Lombard  influence  in  central  Italy,  as  at 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE 


237 


Toscanella  and  Montefiascone,  but  in  general  the  style  id 
very  individual. 

The  group  at  Pisa.  The  cathedral.  The  best  point  of 
departure  for  a  study  of  Tuscan  Romanesque  monuments  is, 
of  course,  the  cathedral  group  at  Pisa  (Figs.  100,  105,  106,  and 


FIG.    IO7 — PISA. 


CATHEDRAL.       VIEW    OF     THE     INTERIOR    LOOKING 
TOWARD  THE   APSE 


107),  where  the  cathedral,  the  leaning  tower  and  baptistry 
offer  the  most  resplendent  examples  of  the  style.  The 
cathedral  is  five  aisled  basilican  (Figs.  100  and  106).  Its 
exterior  arcades  vary  slightly  in  height  and  spacing,  looking 
almost  as  though  they  were  drawn  and  constructed  free-hand. 
The  building  is  wooden-roofed,  but  over  the  crossing  is  an 
egg-shaped  dome  curiously  small  for  so  large  a  nave.  The 
wide  transepts,  afford  a  striking  feature.  The  effect  of  the 
exterior  (Fig.  105)  is  one  of  rich  color  and  interesting  design. 
The  interior  (Fig.  107),  however,  is  decorated  with  the  typical 


238        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

bands  of  light  and  dark  marble,  the  contrasts  being  so  strong 
as  to  shock  the  eye  rather  than  please  it. 

The  Lean-ing  Tower.  The  same  decorative  system,  open 
arcades  with  colored  marble  veneer,  is  applied  in  concentric 
rings  to  the  campanile  (Fig.  105).  Though  there  is  still  dispute 
as  to  whether  the  lean  of  this  famous  monument  is  caused  by 
settling  of  the  foundation  or  was  included  in  the  original  de- 
sign, the  latter  explanation  seems  the  better  attested,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  builders  chose  to  make  one  of  Italy's 
most  beautiful  towers  into  architecture's  most  famous  freak. 

The  Baptistry.  The  baptistry  is  not  so  important  for  our 
study  as  the  other  two  monuments  of  the  group,  since  it 
belongs  partly  to  the  Gothic  period.  The  peculiar  shape  of 
the  roof  is  caused  by  a  unique  system  of  doming,  the  building 
being  first  covered  with  a  cone  of  masonry,  exerting  slight 
thrust,  and  then  the  superficial  effect  of  a  dome  attained  by 
springing  a  segment  of  an  annular  vault  over  the  aisle,  from 
the  cornice,  or  upper  string-course,  to  a  point  about  two-thirds 
the  way  up  the  masonry  cone. 

Buildings  at  Florence.  Florence  affords  a  local  variation 
of  the  style,  the  best  example  being  the  church  of  San  Miniato 
al  Monte.  This  building  follows  the  general  scheme  of  decora- 
tion of  the  style,  with  a  variant  in  the  emphasis  on  the  square 
in  pure  design.  It  also  emphasizes  another  element  noticeable 
in  Tuscan  Romanesque:  the  imitation  of  classical  form. 
Some  of  the  columns  and  pilasters  follow  the  Corinthian  order 
so  closely  that  they  look  almost  like  pilfered  fragments  of 
ancient  structures,  and  we  can  understand  why  the  term 
"proto-Renaissance"  has  been  applied  to  the  age  which  pro- 
duced such  works.  In  another  Florentine  building,  in  the 
same  style,  the  baptistry  of  San  Giovanni,  this  classic  feeling 
is  still  stronger,  and  has  led  some  authorities  even  to  consider 
the  reconstruction  of  about  1 200  less  important  than  is  gener- 
ally supposed,  and  to  argue  that  the  present  structure  dates 
back  to  the  late  classical  period.  The  ingenious  doming  of 
the  building,  with  its  double  shell  and  stiffening  barrel  vaults 
between  the  ribs,  influenced  Brunelleschi  in  his  design  for 
the  dome  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence. 

South  Italian  Romanesque.  Finally,  in  the  third  subdivision 
of  Italian  Romanesque,  that  of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  or 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          239 

of  the  Two  Sicilies,  as  the  region  is  generally  called,  geography 
plays  an  important  part.  Since  the  beginning  of  Medi- 
terranean history  this  region  has  been  fought  over  by  con- 
flicting races.  Here  barbarian,  Greek,  Phoenician,  Roman, 
Goth,  Byzantine,  Italian,  Moslem,  and  Norman  battled, 
prevailed,  succumbed,  and  disappeared.  The  result  was  a 


FIG.    1 08 — CEFALU.      CATHEDRAL.      VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  END 


lawless  and  confused  society,  and  an  art  that  combined 
Oriental  and  Occidental  ideas.  Although  a  hybrid,  it  actually 
succeeded  in  blending  harmoniously  the  ideals  of  a  half- 
dozen  races,  and  we  may  find  in  a  single  building  Lombard 
corbel  tables,  Norman  interlacing  arches,  classic  capitals, 
Byzantine  mosaics,  and  Saracenic  domes.  If  one's  idea  of 
Italian  Romanesque  is  confused,  it  is  a  correct  one. 

The  style  in  Sicily.  In  general  the  admixture  of  styles  shows 
more  clearly  in  Sicily  than  in  southern  Italy.  At  Cefalu 
(Fig.  1 08),  for  example,  we  find  the  Norman  flanking  towers 


240        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

embracing  the  facade,  the  Norman  interlacing  arches,  and  the 
Moslem  dome.  One  need  not,  however,  leave  Palermo,  and 
its  suburb,  Monreale,  to  study  Sicilian  Romanesque  in  its 
most  typical  form.  The  cathedral,  to  be  sure,  is  almost 
wholly  spoiled  by  baroque  alteration,  but  in  the  Cappella 
Palatina  in  the  royal  palace  south  Italian  Romanesque  appears 
in  its  most  harmonious  blend.  The  plan  of  this  chapel  is 


FIG.    IO9 — MONREALE.      CATHEDRAL.      VIEW    OF    THE    INTERIOR    LOOKING 
TOWARD   THE    APSE 


basilican,  its  pavement  is  of  marble  inlay,  and  its  walls  are 
covered  with  precious  Byzantine  mosaics.  The  modified 
Corinthian  columns  which  divide  the  nave  from  the  aisles 
are  low,  the  archivolts  which  they  support  are  lofty  with 
pointed  arches,  here  surely  of  Saracenic  origin.  The  interior, 
completely  incrusted  with  marble  and  mosaic,  gives  an 
impression  of  unsparing  richness. 

Monreale.     Probably  the  finest  example  of  the  style,  how- 
ever, is  the  cathedral  of  Monreale  (Figs.  99,  109,  and  no), 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          241 

some  five  miles  from  Palermo,  founded  in  1176.  This  church 
is  of  Latin  cross  plan  and  wooden  roofed.  The  pavement  is 
marble,  the  dadoes  are  marble  veneered,  and  the  upper  walls  are 
incrusted  with  mosaic.  The  arches  of  the  main  archivolts 
are  much  stilted  and  pointed.  The  exterior  shows  Norman 


FIG.    IIO — MONREALE. 


CATHEDRAL.       SYSTEM    OF    THE    NAVE    AND    THE 
EXTERIOR   OF   THE   CHOIR 


facade  towers  and  interlacing,  Saracenic  decoration  and 
construction.  Adjoining  the  church  is  a  cloister,  with  a  portico 
carried  on  a  series  of  paired  columns  richly  carved  in  shaft 
and  capital,  and  adorned  with  glass  and  marble  mosaic. 
Such  cloisters  form  specially  charming  features  in  many  south 
Italian  Romanesque  churches,  though  they  are  to  be  found 
elsewhere  in  Romanesque  work. 


242        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

German  Romanesque.  The  Romanesque  of  Germany  is, 
on  the  whole,  much  more  homogeneous  than  Italian,  and  the 
most  distinctly  national  of  the  country's  styles.  The  Roman- 
esque style  there  was  exceedingly  prolific,  and  lingered  longer 


FIG.    Ill — COLOGNE.      SAINT  MARY  OF  THE  CAPITOL.      PLAN 

than  in  any  other  country.  Its  unity  and  strength  may  be 
explained  by  the  unity  and  political  power  of  Germany 
beginning  in  919  with  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Fowler  and 
lasting  through  the  period  of  the  Ottos  and  the  later  Henrys. 


FIG.    112 — PAULINZELLE.      PLAN 


In  studying  it  we  must  seek  to  distinguish  the  Germanic 
elements  from  those  which  represent  importation  from  out- 
side. The  former  came  from  a  development  of  the  native 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          243 

Carolingian  style;  the  latter  appear  in  the  increasing  tendency 
to  use  an  organic  Lombard  structural  system,  and  in  a  certain 
amount  of  Byzantine  imitation.  The  last  was  not  nearly  so 
common  in  the  later  Romanesque  as  in  the  Carolingian  epoch, 
though  certain  buildings,  especially  those  at  Cologne,  with 


I    1    ? 


Paulinzelle  Saint  Michael,  Hildesheim 

FIG.    113 — SYSTEMS  OF  GERMAN  ROMANESQUE  CHURCHES 

their  apse-like  transepts  recalling  the  triconch  churches  of 
Syria  and  Egypt,  seem  surely  to  represent  Oriental  influences. 
General  characteristics.  The  most  striking  and  typically 
German  characteristic  of  the  style  is  its  complexity  and 
picturesqueness,  acquired  by  a  multiplication  of  architectural 
members.  Apses  were  placed  at  the  west  as  well  as  the  east. 
Lanterns  not  only  covered  the  crossing,  but  were  placed  at 
the  west  end  of  the  building.  Towers,  and  especially  turrets, 
at  both  ends  were  common.  These  elements,  as  we  have  seen, 
are  of  Carolingian  derivation.  Even  the  churches  which  seem 
to  reflect  most  clearly  Oriental  influence  develop  the  complexi- 
ties of  Carolingian  prototypes,  which  were  themselves 
influenced  by  the  East.  Thus  the  Holy  Apostles  at  Cologne 


244        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

is  but  a  development  of  Saint  Mary  of  the  Capitol  (Fig.  in), 
and  combines  Germanic  complexity  with  the  main  dispositions 
of  an  Oriental  plan.  The  earliest  German  Romanesque 

buildings  are  generally  basilican 
and  tended  to  retain  the  timber 
roof;  the  later  are  partially  or 
even  completely  organic.  Gen- 
erally, however,  the  organism 
of  a  church  is  marred  by  the 
omission  of  one  or  more  struct- 
ural members.  This  organic 
quality,  appearing  late  as  it 
does,  may  be  explained  as  an 
imitation  of  Lombard  work. 
In  general  the  more  organic  as 
well  as  the  more  monumental 
churches  are  to  be  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine. 

Basilican  churches.  Turning 
first  to  the  basilican  churches 
we  find  them  all  alike  in  this 
lack  of  organic  feeling,  but  dif- 
fering widely  in  the  disposition 
of  detail.  Thus  the  Collegiate 
Church  of  Paulinzelle  (Figs. 
112  and  113)  shows  a  blind 

triforium  and  a  uniform  system  of  massive  columns  divid- 
ing the  nave  from  the  aisles.  The  Collegiate  of  Gernrode 
has  a  triforium  gallery,  reduced  clerestory  windows,  and  an 
alternation  of  a  column  with  a  square  pier  in  the  ground  story 
arcade.  Further  variety  is  offered  by  Saint  Michael,  Hildes- 
heim  (Figs.  99  and  113),  which  reverts  to  the  blind  triforium, 
but  places  two  columns  between  the  square  piers  in  the  main 
arcade.  At  Driibeck  (Fig.  114)  we  note  the  simpler  alterna- 
tion of  single  column  and  pier,  but  the  arches  from  pier  to" 
column  are  embraced  by  great  blind  arches  of  double  width 
and  height  which  spring  from  pier  to  pier.  Variation  is, 
therefore,  almost  infinite  in  these  churches,  but  all  are  alike  in 
the  heaviness  of  their  systems,  the  massiveness  of  their  walls, 
and  in  their  simple  wooden  roofs  supported  on  trussed  timbers. 


-7  lH.tr. 


FIG.  114 — DRUBECK.  DRAWING  OF 
ONE  BAY,  SHOWING  THE  SYSTEM 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE 


245 


The  organic  architecture  of  the  Rhine.  As  a  foil  to  these 
basilican  churches  one  may  turn  to  the  great  vaulted  churches 
of  the  Rhine  Valley:  Speyer,  Worms,  and  Mainz.  These 
combine  most  happily  the  Lombard  vaulted  system  with 
German  picturesqueness.  Speyer  (Figs.  100,  115,  116,  and 
117)  has  an  organic  vaulted  system,  complete  but  for  the 
missing  diagonal  ribs.  It  has  a  lantern  over  the  crossing,  two 
square  towers  at  the  east  end,  two  more  at  the  west,  a  western 
transept  and  a  western  lantern.  Despite  its  complexity  the 


FIG.    115 — SPEYER.       PLAN 


building  is  compactly  arranged  and  monumental  in  effect. 
Worms  (Fig.  116)  shows  as  great  complexity  as  Speyer,  and 
moreover  has  a  full  complement  of  ribs.  Both  exhibit  the 
alternate  system,  the  intermediate  piers  on  the  nave  side 
having  engaged  shafts  which  support  an  archivolt  embracing 
the  clerestory  windows.  Later  than  either  of  the  preceding, 
and  perhaps  most  imposing  of  all,  is  the  cathedral  of  Mainz 
(Figs.  99,  116,  and  118).  Here  the  arches  are  freely  pointed, 
and  complexity  is  carried  to  the  extreme,  the  church  having  its 
full  complement  of  turrets,  western  lantern,  western  apse, 
and  the  like.  The  western  apse  adds  picturesqueness,  but 
mars  the  design  of  the  t'agade,  as  the  flanking  doors  are  mere 
insignificant  inlets  for  worshippers  as  compared  to  the  wel- 
coming portals  of  French  churches. 

Summary  of  German  Romanesque.  To  understand  German 
Romanesque,  therefore,  one  must  above  all  keep  in  mind  the 
two  divisions  of  elements:  those  developed  from  the  Caro- 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          247 

lingian,  and  those  which  are  imported;  the  latter  may  be  sub- 
divided roughly  into  Byzantine  and  Lombard.  At  times  all 
three  may  combine  in  a  single  building,  as  in  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Apostles  at  Cologne,  where  we  find  a  semi-organic 
system,  native  picturesqueness,  and  a  three  shell  east  end 
which  suggests  Syria,  but  by  keeping  the  main  divisions  in 
mind  we  may  analyze  and 
comprehend  the  host  of 
Romanesque  monuments 
which  Germany  offers. 

Approach  to  the  study  of 
French  Romanesque.  As  we 
approach  the  discussion  of 
French  Romanesque,  clear- 
ness suggests  that  we  begin 
with  the  southern  styles  and 
work  toward  the  northern. 
This  will,  at  times,  falsify 
chronology,  but  the  pro- 
vincial styles  of  France  are 
so  nearly  contemporaneous 
that  the  fault  is  not  a  seri- 
ous one,  and  the  advantages 
of  examining  the  southern 
styles  first  are  great.  The 
southern  and  central  styles 
have  one  important  com- 
mon characteristic:  predi- 
lection for  the  barrel  vault 
and  consequently  inorganic 
feeling. 

Provence.  One  may  characterize  Provencal  Romanesque 
as  the  most  classic  of  all  Romanesque  styles.  It  was  in- 
evitable in  a  district  which  still  preserves  the  Pont-du-Gard, 
the  Baths  of  Diana  at  Nimes,  the  amphitheater  at  Aries,  the 
triumphal  arch  at  Orange,  and  countless  other  monuments  of 
Roman  antiquity,  that  architects  should  be  influenced  strongly 
by  the  examples  constantly  before  their  eyes.  The  result  was 
not  only  a  predilection  for  the  barrel  vault,  especially  the 
barrel  vault  supported  on  transverse  semicircular  arches,  as 


FIG.  117 — SPEYER.  CATHEDRAL.  VIEW 
OF  THE  INTERIOR  LOOKING  TOWARD 
THE  APSE 


•VI 11; 

m  &t  m  m  *  ' 


FIG.    Il8 — MAIN7.      CATHEDRAL.      VIEW    FROM    TfiE    NORTH 


FIG.    IIQ — ARLES.      SAINT  TROPHIME.      THE  MAIN  PORTAL 


ROMANESQUE   ARCHITECTURE          249 


in  the  Baths  of  Diana,  but  also  for  detail  strongly  classical 
in  feeling. 

Monuments.  An  examination  of  the  monuments  emphasizes 
this  fact.  The  facade  of  Saint  Trophime  at  Aries  (Fig.  119) 
has  capitals  which  are  almost  true  Corinthian  and  a  suggestion 
of  entablature  that  is  modified,  not  debased,  classic  Roman. 
The  interior  is  barrel  vaulted,  with  transverse  arches,  but  the 
barrel  vault  is  pointed  in  cross  section.  Saint  Gilles  (Gard) 
boasts  a  fagade  similar  to  Saint 
Trophime,  but  more  elaborate. 
Here  even  the  masonry  recalls  classic 
Rome,  and  the  main  portal  is  flanked 
by  channeled  pilasters  of  almost 
deceptively  classic  character.  Some 
of  the  Corinthian  columns,  too,  need 
only  a  delicate  entasis  to  appear 
stolen  from  a  classic  edifice.  These 
are  well-known  examples,  and  the 
more  obscure  reiterate  the  same 
effects.  The  word  "Romanesque" 
in  its  literal  sense  applies  more 
aptly  to  the  Provencal  style  than 
to  any  other. 

Auvergne.  Farther  north  and 
west  a  somewhat  different  develop- 
ment was  taking  place .  In  Auvergne 
we  find  the  same  predilection  for 
barrel  vaults,  but  new  dispositions 
in  plan.  The  Auvergnat  churches, 
as  one  would  expect  in  the  earliest 

of  the  French  Romanesque  styles,    TRANSVERSE  SECTION,  snow- 
have  a  Carolingian  affiliation  and    ING 
something   of  the   picturesqueness 
of  the  Romanesque  of  the  Rhine. 

Apses  are  provided  with  ambulatories  and  radiating  absidioles, 
and  absidioles  are  often  added  to  the  eastern  walls  of  the 
transepts.  At  the  same  time  the  barrel  vault  is  treated 
with  more  freedom.  The  nave  is  usually  covered  with  a 
barrel  vault,  but  the  aisles  are  often  provided  with  but 
half -barrel  vaults  which  thrust  inward  and  counteract 


HALF  -  BARREL 

OVER  THE    AISLE 


VAULT 


250        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  thrust  of  the  vault  of  the  nave  (see  Fig.  120).  An  in- 
evitable result  of  this  arrangement  was  inadequate  lighting. 
Light  was  admitted  through  the  ground  story  windows, 
and  through  windows  in  the  triforium  gallery  beneath  the  half- 
barrel  vaults,  but  by  the  time  it  had  filtered  into  the  nave  it 
was  much  weakened,  and  most  Auvergnat  churches  give  one 

the  sensation  of  a  black 
cloud  overhanging  the  nave, 
an  effect  which,  if  not  cheer- 
ful, is  at  least  impressive. 
The  individual  members  and 
general  construction  of  the 
Auvergnat  church,  according 
with  its  early  date,  are  gen- 
erally very  massive,  another 
fact  which  again  makes  the 
churches  impressive,  if  some- 
times ungraceful.  The  ex- 
terior is  lightened  by  the 
absidioles,  stepped  lanterns, 
arcades,  and  general  multipli- 
cation of  members,  which  give 
the  building  picturesque- 
ness. 

Monuments.  The  best 
known  and  historically  most 
interesting  of  Auvergnat 

churches  is  Notre  Dame  du  Port  at  Clermont-Ferrand  (Figs. 
120  and  121).  It  is  a  heavy,  barrel-vaulted,  ill-lighted  but 
impressive  church,  with  a  multiplication  of  absidioles  and  the 
general  picturesqueness  which  well  typifies  the  style.  Other 
monuments,  as  illuminating  if  less  famous,  are  numerous. 
Among  them  we  must  mention  Saint  Saturnin,  and  Orcival 
(Puy-de-D6me). 

Languedoc.  Closely  allied  to  the  style  of  Auvergne  is  that 
which  we  may  call,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  the  school  of 
Languedoc,  though  the  district  involved  embraces  a  vast 
territory  from  Auvergne  to  the  Pyrenees.  The  styles  of 
Auvergne  and  Languedoc  have  often  with  reason  been  classi- 
fied together,  but  the  latter  tends  to  a  more  monumental 


FIG.  121 — CLERMONT-FERRAND.   NOTRE 
DAME  DU  PORT.   VIEW  OF  THE  EAST  END 


scale,  and  greater  delicacy  in  single  members  and  sculptured 
detail.  The  most  prominent  example  of  this  style  is,  of  course, 
Saint  Sernin  at  Toulouse  (Figs.  100  and  122),  a  five  aisled, 
barrel-vaulted  structure  with  a  lofty  and  very  graceful  lantern 
over  the  crossing.  The  building  is  on  so  elaborate  a  scale,  and 
exhibits  so  great  delicacy  of  material  and  detail,  that  one  does 
not  at  first  identify  it  as  a 
close  relative  of  the  buildings 
of  neighboring  Auvergne,  yet 
such  it  is.  The  architectural 
sculptures  alone  of  Lan- 
guedoc  would  differentiate 
the  buildings  of  that  district 
from  those  of  Auvergne. 

Aquitaine.  Byzantine 
character  of  the  building. 
North  of  Languedoc  and 
west  of  Auvergne  we  find  a 
very  vigorous  and  distinct 
school  flourishing  in  Aqui- 
taine. The  Aquitanian 
buildings  have  generally  been 
characterized  as  the  most 
Byzantine  of  French  Ro- 
manesque churches.  Saint 
Front  at  P6rigueux  (Figs.  99 
and  123)  has  repeatedly  been 

called  a  direct  copy  of  Saint  Mark's  at  Venice,  and  the  numer- 
ous other  churches  of  the  district,  with  their  domes  on  penden- 
tives  so  unique  in  French  Romanesque,  have  been  said  to  be 
inspired  by  Saint  Front.  To  this  theory  a  reaction  has  lately 
set  in.  Saint  Front  postdates  many  of  the  buildings  in  the 
neighborhood  with  the  same  characteristics,  and  there  are  great 
differences  between  the  so-called  Byzantine  details  of  these 
buildings  and  the  details  of  the  real  Byzantine  buildings 
whence  they  are  supposed  to  be  derived.  These  facts  have  led 
certain  scholars  to  conclude  that  the  domed  churches  of 
Aquitaine  owe  no  more  to  Byzantium  than  the  Romanesque 
of  the  rest  of  France,  but  convincing  as  these  arguments  at 
first  seem,  they  can  be  overthrown  by  the  juxtaposition  of  the 


FIG.  122 — TOULOUSE.      SAINT  SERNIN. 
THE  INTERIOR  SEEN   FROM  THE  WEST 


252        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

plans  of  Saint  Mark's  and  Saint  Front  (Figs.  88  and  99). 
We  note  the  salient  Greek  cross,  the  barrel  vaults,  the  central 
dome  on  pendentives,  and  the  four  subordinate  domes  on  the 
arms  of  the  cross.  Such  similarities  are  not  coincidences. 
Probably  Saint  Front  is  not  a  copy  of  Saint  Mark's;  surely, 
however,  the  two  are  inspired  by  a  Byzantine  original,  quite 


FIG.    123 — PERIGUEUX.        SAINT       FRONT.       GENERAL       VIEW       FROM 

SOUTHEAST 


THE 


possibly  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  at  Constantinople. 
Certainly  it  is  correct  to  classify  the  Romanesque  of  Aquitaine 
as  most  Byzantine  in  character. 

Originality  of  Aquitanian  architecture.  Not  all  the  churches 
of  Aquitaine,  however,  have  the  Greek  cross  plan  or  even  the 
domes  on  pendentives  which  mark  the  style  as  Byzantine  in 
character.  In  the  cathedral  of  Angouleme,  for  example  (Fig. 
99),  the  dome  vaults  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross, 
and  at  Notre  Dame  la  Grande  at  Poitiers  (Fig.  124)  the  dome 
on  pendentives  is  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  barrel  vault. 
The  churches  of  the  region  are,  nevertheless,  bound  into  one 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          253 

style  by  the  system  of  decoration,  curious  cone-shaped  turrets 
with  scale-like  tiles,  bossy  masonry,  and  a  unique  inter- 
mingling of  architectural  and  figure  sculpture  as  ornament 
over  portals  and  windows. 

Burgundy.  We  may  conclude  our  examination  of  southern 
and  central  French  Romanesque  with  a  brief  review  of  the 
Burgundian  style. 
As  might  be  ex- 
pected from  geo- 
graphical consid- 
erations, this  style 
is  the  most  or- 
ganic of  the  south- 
ern-central group, 
and  therefore 
makes  a  good 
transition  to  the 
study  of  the  art 
of  Normandy  and 
the  He  de  France. 
The  characteris- 
tics most  worthy 
of  emphasis  are  its 
accent  on  monas- 
tic architecture, 
its  increasingly 
organic  quality  in- 
volving frequent 
use  of  the  groin  FIG.  124 — POITIERS.  NOTRE  DAME  LA  GRANDE. 
vault,  its  original-  VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  END 

ity  in  the  hand- 
ling of  the  barrel  vault,  and  its  vigorous,  racy  sculptured 
decorations,  especially  as  applied  in  the  vestibule  or  narthex, 
a  feature  which  received  unprecedented  development  at  the 
hands  of  the  Burgundian  architects. 

Cluny.  The  abbey  of  Cluny  (Figs.  99  and  100)  was, 
perhaps,  the  most  typical  Burgundian  church.  It  was 
founded  in  1089,  destroyed  in  1125,  and  rebuilt  in  1130. 
Unfortunately  it  was  razed  during  the  French  Revolution,  but 
we  know  it  by  drawings  and  descriptions.  It  was  five-aisled, 


254        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the,  nave  covered  with  a  barrel  vault  and  the  aisles  with  groin 
vaults.  Its  transepts  were  double,  those  to  the  east  smaller 
than  those  to  the  west,  giving  the  plan  the  archiepiscopal- 
cross  form  so  common  in  English  Gothic  buildings.  Round 
the  ambulatory  were  five  absidioles,  and  others  were  added 
on  the  eastern  faces  of  the  transepts.  The  nave  was  preceded 
by  an  elaborate  narthex  of  five  bays.  There  was  a  lantern 


FIG.  125 — VEZELAY.   CHURCH  OF  THE  MADELEINE.   THE  INTERIOR  SEEN 
FROM  THE  VESTIBULE 

over  the  crossing,  towers  over  the  transepts,  and  towers  were 
placed  at  the  west  end.  The  impression  of  the  building  must 
have  been  not  unlike  that  of  a  Rhenish  church  of  the  period, 
and,  indeed,  a  connection  between  the  two  has  often  been 
urged. 

Extant  Burgundian  monuments.  Burgundy  possesses,  how- 
ever, many  extant  monuments  in  which  the  style  may  be 
judged.  The  cathedral  of  Autun,  for  example,  exhibits  an 
elaborately  ornamented  narthex,  and  a  nave  in  the  form  of  a 
pointed  barrel  vault.  An  ingenious  variant  in  the  treatment 
of  the  barrel  vault  may  be  seen  at  Saint  Philibert  at  Tournus. 
The  gravest  fault  of  the  longitudinal  barrel  vault  over  a  nave 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE 


255 


is  its  tendency  to  suppress,  usually  entirely,  the  window 
openings  in  the  clerestory.  In  Saint  Philibert  this  difficulty 
is  avoided  by  roofing  the  nave  with  a  series  of  sections  of  barrel 
vaults,  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  building. 
These  sections  mutually  abut  one  another,  and  their  wall 
arches  leave  ample  room  for  clerestory  openings,  but  the 
esthetic  effect  of  the  series  of  transverse  arches  is  unhappy, 
and  the  experiment  was  not  copied  in  other  buildings. 

Ve^elay.     The  best  known  and  the  most   interesting  his- 
torically of  the  Burgundian  buildings  is  the  abbey  church  of 


FIG.    126 — ROMANESQUE   ORNAMENT 

Vczelay  (Fig.  125).  Here  we  find  the  Burgundian  narthex, 
with  its  richly  sculptured  decoration,  but  the  barrel  vault 
disappears  entirely,  even  the  great  bays  of  the  nave  being 
covered  with  groin  vaults.  The  groins  lack  ribs,  so  that  the 
system  is  only  partially  organic,  but  despite  the  lack  we  feel 
an  increase  in  organic  interest  which  signals  the  approach  of 
the  northern  styles. 

Northern  French  Romanesque.  Normandy.  As  we  have 
seen,  northern  French  Romanesque  falls  naturally  into  two 
divisions,  the  Norman  and  that  of  the  He  de  France.  We 
shall  begin  with  the  former.  The  most  marked  characteristics 
of  fully  developed  Norman  Romanesque  are  its  strong  sense 
of  structural  logic  and  its  inventiveness.  No  style  which  we 
have  examined,  except  the  Lombard,  has  been  marked  so 
strongly  by  the  former,  and  it  seems  clear  that  Lombard 
architecture  exercised  a  strong  influence  on  the  Romanesque 
of  Normandy.  Those  who  urge  an  autochthonous  growth  for 


256 


A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


the  Norman  style  run  counter  to  what  we  know  of  Norman 
history.  Lanfranc,  for  example,  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
Lombards,  established  himself  successively  at  Bee,  Caen,  and 
Avranches,  and,  after  the  Conquest,  became  archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  He  was  followed  in  the  same  places  by  Anselm 

of  Aosta,  afterward  canonized. 
Unquestionably  such  men  as  these 
carried  Lombard  influence  into 
Normandy,  though  this  fact 
should  not  blind  us  to  the  pre- 
cocity and  inventiveness  of  the 
Norman  style. 

Norman  originality.  Ribbed 
vaulting,  the  alternate  system, 
compound  piers,  are  features  com- 
mon both  to  Lombard  and  Nor- 
man. To  the  latter,  however, 
belongs  the  credit  of  inventing  a 
new  vault  form,  specially  adapted 
to  the  alternate  system.  In  the 
nave  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes 
(Saint  Etienne)  at  Caen  (Figs.  99, 
128,  and  130),  it  occurred  to  the 
builders  to  throw  an  intermediate 
transverse  rib  from  the  inter- 
mediate pier,  dividing  the  vault 
surface  into  six  cells  instead  of 
four.  In  this  system  the  crowns 
of  the  lateral  cells  run  obliquely, 

instead  of  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  building. 
The  vault  surfaces  are  somewhat  distorted,  but  the  win- 
dow space  was  enlarged,  and  the  aptitude  of  the  form  to 
the  alternate  system  is  attested  by  the  number  of  Gothic 
buildings  in  which  the  two  are  combined  (see  plan  of  Paris 
cathedral,  Fig.  139).  Normandy  also  developed  a  number  of 
decorative  motives.  The  billet  mold  was  adopted  from 
Carolingian  architecture,  and  new  forms  such  as  the  dog-tooth, 
zigzag,  and  interlacing  arcade  were  invented  (Fig.  126).  The- 
technique  of  stone  cutting  and  stone  fitting,  too,  was  notably  finer 
in  Normandy  than  in  contemporary  schools  of  Romanesque, 


FIG.    127 — JUMIEGES.      ABBEY 
CHURCH.       THE    SYSTEM 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          257 

Jumieges.  The  earliest  important  extant  example  of  Nor- 
man Romanesque  is  the  abbey  church  of  Jumieges  (Fig.  127). 
In  this  building,  now  a  ruin,  we  find  the  alternate  system. 
Although  the  church  was  designed  for  a  timber  roof,  a  com- 
pound engaged  shaft  runs  from  the  main  piers,  through  the 
clerestory,  to  the  level  of  the  cross  beams  of  the  roof.  It  is 


Abbaye-aux-Dames  Abbaye-aux-Hommes 

FIG.   128 — CAEN.      THE   ABBEY  CHURCHES.      SYSTEM   OF  THE   INTERIORS 

probable  that  we  have  here  a  reminiscence  of  the  early 
Lombard  wooden-roofed  church  in  which  the  roof  was  sup- 
ported, at  least  partially,  by  stone  arches  thrown  across  the 
nave. 

The  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  at  Caen.  Sexparttte  vaults.  At 
Caen  the  so-called  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  (Figs.  99,  128,  and 
129),  built  and  dedicated  to  Saint  Stephen  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  gives  us  the  most  complete  example  of  the  style. 
Though  the  church  was  founded  in  the  eleventh  century,  the 


258         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


vaults  are  a  reconstruction  of  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth. 
The  original  building  was  wooden-roofed  but  had  the  inter- 
mediate engaged  shaft,  which  occurs  in  Lombardy,  and  there 
supports  only  the  corbel  table  of  the  triforium  string.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  presence  of  the  intermediate 

shaft  suggested 
the  intermediate 
rib,  and  the  Nor- 
man invention  of 
the  sexpartite 
vault  (Figs.  99, 
128,  and  129)  was 
the  result.  In  the 
Abbaye  -  aux- 
Hommes  there 
are  also  numerous 
passageways  in 
the  thickness  of 
the  walls,  which 
give  access  to  the 
clerestory  win- 
dows and  other 
parts  of  the 
church,  and  an 
open  lantern  over 
the  crossing. 
These  features 
are  almost  surely 
Norman  innova- 
tions. 

The  Abbaye-aux-Dames  at  Caen.  Rudimentary  flying  but- 
tresses. As  a  pendant  to  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  William's 
wife,  Matilda,  built  the  church  of  the  Trinity,  called  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames  (Figs.  100  and  128).  This  church,  on  a 
smaller  scale  than  Saint  Etienne,  is  more  compactly  composed 
and  more  profusely  and  delicately  ornamented.  The  archi- 
tects of  La  Trinite  invented  one  feature  of  the  greatest  signifi- 
cance. In  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  the  builders  had  tried 
to  abut  the  thrust  of  the  nave  vaults  by  a  half-barrel  vault 
over  the  triforium  galleries,  a  system  which  we  have  already 


FIG.  129 — CAEN.      SAINT  ETIENNE.      VIEW  OF  THE 
INTERIOR    LOOKING    TOWARD    THE    APSE 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          259 


noted  in  Auvergne  and  Languedoc  (Notre  Dame  du  Port, 
Clermont-Ferrand;  Saint  Sernin,  Toulouse).  The  thrust  of  such 
a  half-barrel  vault,  being  continuous,  well  meets  the  con- 
tinuous thrust  of  the  barrel  vault  of  the  nave,  but  the  thrusts 
of  a  groin  vault,  like  that  of  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  are 
not  continuous.  They  are  concentrated  at  the  intersection 
of  the  ribs,  and  the  half -barrel 
vault  is,  therefore,  useless, 
except  at  and  near  points 
coinciding  with  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  ribs.  Recognizing 
this  fact,  the  builders  of  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames  omitted 
all  portions  of  the  half-barrel 
vault  where  it  was  not  needed 
to  abut  the  thrusts  of  the 
nave  vault.  The  result  was 
a  series  of  arches,  hidden 
under  the  lean-to  aisle  roof, 
which  carried  the  thrusts  of 
the  nave  vaults  over  to  the 
pier  buttresses  set  against 
the  outer  walls  of  the  aisles 
(Fig.  100).  Hidden  and  rudi- 
mentary as  these  members 
are,  they  are  nevertheless 
embryonic  flying  buttresses, 
and  to  Norman  Romanesque  KG.  130— IFFLEY.  PARISH  CHURCH. 
belongs  the  credit  of  invent-  VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  END 

ing  this  important  feature. 

Romanesque  architecture  of  England.  English  originality. 
Before  passing  on  to  the  architecture  of  the  He  de  France  we 
must  pause  to  note  the  Romanesque  architecture  of  England. 
The  transition  is  wholly  logical,  for,  although  England  and 
Normandy  are  now  politically  divided,  during  the  later  Roman- 
esque period  they  were  one.  Naturally  the  architects  of 
William  the  Conqueror  created  buildings  of  the  same  style  in 
England  a  few  years  after  the  Conquest  as  they  had  in  Nor- 
mandy a  few  years  before.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however, 
that  Norman  Romanesque  underwent  no  modifications  in 


26o        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

England.  England  often  borrowed,  but  seldom  slavishly 
copied.  Norman  Romanesque  in  England  became  more 
massive,  as  though  the  heavy  Saxon  architecture  which  it 
superseded  had  influenced  it.  Sometimes  this  massiveness 
was  emphasized  by  extreme  bareness  and  absence  of  decora- 
tion, as  in  Saint  John's  chapel  in  the  Tower  of  London;  some- 
times it,  was  disguised  by  a  luxuriant  profusion  of  Norman 


FIG.    131 — DURHAM.      CATHEDRAL.      PLAN 

decorative  motives,  as  in  the  parish  church  of  Iffley  (Fig.  130). 
In  general  the  style  tended  to  abandon  the  structural  logic  of 
Normandy  and  to  revert  to  wooden  roofs.  Even  in  vaulted 
Durham  (Figs.  131  and  132),  the  finest  and  most  homogeneous 
of  the  Anglo-Norman  cathedrals,  the  alternate  system  was 
used  with  an  illogical,  if  ingenious,  vault  system.  No  trans- 
verse ribs  are  thrown  from  the  intermediate  piers  and  the 
latter  have  no  engaged  shafts.  Extra  diagonals,  however, 
spring  from  corbels  above  the  intermediate  piers,  and  the 
result  is  what  one  might  call  either  two  imperfect  quadri- 
partite vaults  or  a  single  septapartite  one.  The  transverse 
arches  of  Durham  are  pointed,  a  phenomenon  quite  common 
in  later  Anglo-Norman  churches.  English  Romanesque  does, 
therefore,  show  originality,  despite  its  close  relation  to  Norman. 
Romanesque  of  the  lie  de  France.  Returning  to  France,  we 
may  now  take  up  the  most  completely  organic  of  all  Roman- 
esque styles:  that  of  the  He  de  France.  One  may  think  of 
it  as  the  most,  or  the  least,  finished  of  styles,  according  to 
whether  one  thinks  of  it  as  completed  Romanesque  or  rudi- 
mentary Gothic.  The  problem  is  greatly  complicated  by  the 


ROMANESQUE   ARCHITECTURE          261 

fact  that  in  this  region  Gothic  architecture  developed,  and  the 
Romanesque  buildings  from  which  it  sprang  were  usually 
either  altered  during  the  later  Gothic  period  or  modified  by 
the  architectural  experiments  by  means  of  which  finished 
Gothic  was  reached.  Much  that  might  otherwise  come  under 
the  head  of  Romanesque  architecture  of  the  He  de  France  must 
be  discussed  in  connection  with  developing  Gothic,  and  may, 


FIG.    132 — DURHAM.      CATHEDRAL.      GENERAL  VIEW  FROM  THE  SOUTHEAST 

therefore,  be  omitted  here.  In  general  the  Romanesque 
monuments  of  the  region  are  not  large  in  scale  or  striking  in 
esthetic  effect.  To  an  even  greater  degree  than  in  the  build- 
ings of  Lombardy  their  greatest  interest  is  historical,  in  the 
light  they  shed  on  future  organic  styles,  and  this  impression 
is  greatly  exaggerated  by  the  destruction  and  alteration  of  so 
many  of  the  finest  buildings. 

Earlier  and  later  buildings.  The  earlier  buildings'  of  the 
lie  de  France  were  not  organic,  and  inorganic  buildings  were 
erected  even  contemporaneously  with  those  of  the  budding 
Gothic  style.  Such  a  church  as  Vignory,  for  example,  is 
timber-roofed,  with  massive  piers,  plain  walls,  and  no  organic 
structure  whatever.  In  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh 


262        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


century,  however,  a  highly  organic  style  appeared.  The  idea 
of  organic  vaulting,  with  logical  piers,  probably  came  from 
Normandy,  though  the  Norman  alternate  system  was  not 
taken  over  and  does  not  appear  in  the  He  de  France  till  the 
Gothic  period.  Ideas  of  plan,  notably  in  the  ambulatories, 
and  decoration  were  borrowed  from  the  south. 

Development  of  the  style.  The  development  of  the  style  was 
one  of  increasing  delicacy  and  nicety  of  adjustment  of  load  to 
shaft.  At  times,  as  at  Saint-Loup-de-Naud,  the  vaults  and 

piers  are  massive  and  clumsy 
in  appearance,  but  always 
exactingly  logical  in  arrange- 
ment. In  finished  examples, 
as  at  Saint  Remi,  Reims,  the 
shafts  are  slender,  delicately 
cut,  and  delicately  adjusted 
to  the  load  they  bear. 

Full  development.  Saint 
Remi,  however,  like  most 
examples  of  the  style,  is  not 
homogeneous.  The  fine 
Romanesque  shafts  and  piers 
carry  not  Romanesque  but 
Gothic  vaults,  which  really 
emphasize  the  structural 
good  taste  of  the  former,  so 
well  do  the  two  harmonize. 
In  like  manner  the  church 
of  Saint  Etienne,  Beauvais, 

FIG.  133 — BEAUVAIS.    SAINT  ETIENNE.    °ne      °*       the      ^LOSt      tamOUS 

DRAWING  OF  ONE  OF  THE  AISLE  VAULTS  Romanesque  monuments  of 

AND  ITS   SUPPORTS.       (FROM  MOORE)       the    ^^    {&    finished    with 

Gothic  vaults.  The  elegance  of  the  Romanesque  portions, 
however,  especially  the  side  aisles  (Fig.  133),  shows  the  ad- 
vanced point  which  the  style  reached  in  the  district. 

Morienval.     The   beginnings   of  Gothic.     One  of   the   best  • 
known  examples  of  the  style  is  the  little  church  of  Morienval 
(Fig.  99).      The  nave  is  covered  with  an  early  Gothic  vault, 
but  the  north  aisle  (Fig.  134)  retains  its  Romanesque  vault, 
lacking  diagonal  ribs,  though  the  diagonals  are  supported  by 


Copyright  by  Macmillan  &  Co. 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          263 


a  pilaster  strip  in  the  pier.  In  the  same  aisle  one  may  note 
a  tendency  to  stilt  the  transverse  rib  in  order  to  raise  its  crown 
nearer  the  level  of  the  crown  of  the  vault,  a  tendency  which 
we  might  also  have  noted  in  the  aisle  vaults  of  Saint  Etienne 
at  Beauvais  (Fig.  133).  Here  we  reach  a  limbo  in  which 
organic  Romanesque  and  the  most  rudimentary  Gothic  meet. 
If  we  but  walked  from  the 
north  aisle  of  Morienval  to 
the  apsidal  ambulatory  of 
that  church  we  might  see  a 
transverse  arch  not  only 
stilted  that  its  crown  may 
approach  the  crown  of  the 
vault,  but  also  for  the  same 
reason  pointed.  With  this 
observation  we  should  pass, 
however,  from  the  consider- 
ation of  Romanesque  to  that 
of  Gothic  architecture. 

Spanish  Romanesque. 
Before  bringing  to  a  close 
the  discussion  of  the  schools 
of   Romanesque   architect- 
ure,  a  word    is    necessary 
with  regard  to  Spain.     In 
general    Spanish     Roman- 
esque represents  an  impor-      FIG.  134— MORIENVAL.    PARISH 
tation  of  the  styles  of  Au-     CHURCH'    VIEW  OF  THE  NORTH  AISLE 
vergne  and  Languedoc. 

The  most  famous  of  the  Spanish  churches,  that  of  Santiago 
at  Compostela  (Fig.  135),  strikingly  resembles  Saint  Sernin 
of  Toulouse.  Just  as  the  English  modified  the  Norman,  so 
the  Spanish  modified  the  southern  French,  and  impressed 
it  with  their  own  nationality.  In  a  temperate  climate 
roofs  became  flatter,  so  that  at  times  the  triforium  space 
was  practically  eliminated  and  its  openings  made  into  win- 
dows, as  in  the  Colegiata  of  San  Isidore  at  Leon  (Fig. 
136).  Forms  specially  characteristic  of  Spain,  such  as  the 
so-called  Visigothic  horseshoe  arch,  were  used,  and  above  all 

sculptured   decoration   became   profuse.     Undercutting  was 
10 


264        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

deepened,  edges  sharpened,  forms  crowded,  until  the  decora- 
tion attained  that  sparkling  character  so  typically  Spanish. 
The  common  phenomenon,  therefore,  of  Spanish  naturaliza- 
tion of  immigrant  forms  never  appears  more  strikingly  than 
in  the  case  of  Romanesque  architecture. 

Development  of  single  features.  Obviously  in  an  architecture 
so  heterogeneous  as  Romanesque  it  is  impossible  to  trace  a 

strictly  chronological 
development  of  any 
single  feature,  or 
group  of  features. 
Nevertheless,  at  the 
risk  of  repetition,  it 
will  be  well  to  note 
the  progress  made  by 
the  style  in  the  devel- 
opment and  adapta- 
tion of  certain  details 
or  features  of  churchly 
architecture. 

Plans.  The  discus- 
sion of  the  plan  may 
be  dismissed  sum- 
marily with  the  state- 
ment that  the  style 
offered  material  for 
almost  all  subsequent 
types  of  church  plans. 
The  prototype  of  the 
finished  French 
Gothic  building,  with 
its  complicated 
chevet,  ambulatory, 

and  radial  chapels,  is  to  be  found  in  southern  French  Roman- 
esque, just  as  the  favorite  English  archiepiscopal-cross  plan 
is  to  be  found  in  Burgundy. 

Vaults.  The  progress  in  vault  forms  was  as  marked. 
Besides  innovations  and  modifications  of  barrel  vault  forms, 
such  as  pointed  barrel  vaults  and  cross  barrel  vaults,  we  find 
Lombardy  and  Normandy  developing  the  Byzantine  domed 


3«m- 


FIG.   135 — COMPOSTELA.     SANTIAGO.     PLAN 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          265 

vault  into  the  organic,  domical  groin  vault  of  quadripartite 
or  sexpartite  form,  and  handing  on  to  Gothic  the  ideas  neces- 
sary for  its  future  development.  Ingenuity  and  originality 
were  shown  even  in  the  trussed  wooden  roof,  and  it  was  given 
new  and  interesting  forms,  as  at  San  Zeno  in  Verona. 

Supports.     Corresponding  to  the  ribbed  vaults,  we  find  the 
supports  developing,  with  compound  members  for  a  compound 


o        5        to  20  n\-  oil}*      sm. 

FIG.    136 — LEON.      SAN   ISIDORO.      PLAN   AND   SYSTEM 

rib  system.  We  find  the  Lombard  alternate  system  brought 
into  accord  with  the  sexpartite  vault,  and  the  shaft  capitals 
signaling  the  direction  of  the  springing  of  the  ribs.  Chrono- 
logically we  may  note  a  steady  refining  of  the  proportions  of 
the  supports,  suggesting  approaching  Gothic,  which  culminates 
in  the  delicate  proportions  of  the  best  Romanesque  of  the 
He  de  France. 

Buttresses.     The    progress    of   the    buttress   was   no    less 
remarkable.     Lombardy  supplied  the  pilaster  strip  against 


266         A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  outer  wall,  used  as  a  buttress,  which  was  the  germ  of  all 
future  development.  This  pilaster  or  pier  buttress  was 
steadily  deepened  and  strengthened.  At  the  same  time 
numerous  solutions  of  the  problem  of  carrying  the  thrusts  of 
the  nave  vaults  to  the  aisle  walls  and  the  buttresses  were 
made.  In  Lombardy  this  was  done  by  omitting  the  triforium 
and  carrying  the  thrusts  of  the  nave  vaults  over  to  the  gallery 
vaults,  and  thence  to  the  outer  wall.  In  Auvergne  and  else- 
where the  same  problem  was  solved  by  barrel  vaults  and  half- 
barrel  vaults  over  a  triforium  gallery,  binding  in  the  great 
vault  of  the  nave.  Finally,  at  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames,  the 
continuous  half-barrel  vault,  illogical  for  the  abutment  of  a 
groin  vault,  was  cut  into  sections,  and  these  sections,  or 
rudimentary  flying  buttresses,  were  placed  under  the  aisle 
roofs  to  neutralize  and  carry  off  the  concentrated  thrusts  of 
the  groin  vaults  of  the  nave. 

Construction.  With  the  refinement  and  development  of 
details  went  a  lightening  of  the  building  as  a  whole.  As  the 
parts  became  more  slender,  the  whole  became  less  massy. 
This  development  did  not  proceed  equally  in  all  regions,  nor 
did  it  even  proceed  chronologically.  There  were,  as  we  have 
seen,  massy,  inert  buildings  in  the  He  de  France.  The 
tendency  was,  however,  to  convert  the  heavy  early  type  into 
a  lighter  one  presaging  the  Gothic  building. 

Facades.  The  design  of  the  facade  progressed  notably  in 
this  period.  In  spite  of  their  organic  structure,  the  Lombard 
buildings  were  masked  behind  illogical  and  often  unsightly 
fagades,  though  some  of  the  later  Lombard  churches,  like  San 
Zeno,  have  well-proportioned  facades  which  reveal  the  inner 
structure  of  the  building.  Logical  facade  composition  re- 
ceived its  fullest  Romanesque  development  in  Normandy 
where,  as  in  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  the  vertical  divisions 
of  the  interior  are  marked  on  the  exterior  by  pilasters,  the 
horizontal  by  rows  of  windows,  the  pitched  roof  revealed  by  a 
gable,  and  the  whole  flanked  by  two  monumental  towers.  All 
the  germs  are  here  which  were  developed  into  the  complete 
Gothic  fagade.  At  the  same  time  facades  which  lacked 
organic  expressiveness  and  logic,  but  added  other  beauties, 
were  being  designed  in  other  styles  of  Romanesque.  Thus  the 
Tuscans  designed  rich  polychromatic  facades,  adorned  with 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          267 

arcades,  and  the  Germans  picturesque  ones  with  a  profusion 
of  turrets,  apses,  and  the  like. 

Lanterns  and  towers.  Meanwhile  lavish  invention  was 
devoted  to  lanterns  and  especially  to  bell  towers.  In  Italy  the 
latter  were  constructed  at  a  very  early  date  round  and  free- 
standing. In  the  north  these  turret-like  members,  even  in 
Carolingian  times,  were  incorporated  with  the  building. 
Eventually  the  square  or  angular  tower  became  the  favorite, 
and  infinite  variations  were  played  on  it.  At  times  the  tower 
was  merely  carried  up  in  a  series  of  stepped  squares  and 
topped  by  a  pyramid  as  at  Morienval.  Again  it  was  square, 
but  its  pointed  roof  polygonal,  the  angles  being  filled  with 
little  polygonal  members,  themselves  covered  with  peaked 
roofs,  as  at  Beaulieu-les-Loches.  A  variant  of  this  type 
appears  at  Auxerre,  where  the  square  tower  is  surmounted  by 
a  polygon,  and  the  tapering  roof  springs  from  that.  Some- 
times the  round  tower,  ornamented  with  blind  and  open 
arcades,  is  used  in  France  (Uzes) ;  sometimes  the  round  turret 
above  a  square  and  crowned  with  a  cone  appears  (Saint  Front, 
Perigueux).  In  the  most  elaborate  examples  stepped  square 
is  placed  on  square,  stepped  polygon  on  polygon,  until  as  at 
Jumieges,  the  towers  produce  an  aspiring  effect  very  suggestive 
of  Gothic. 

Openings.  In  openings  we  must  note  a  constant  elaboration 
of  the  splaying  characteristic  of  Carolingian  architecture.  In 
the  latter  a  splay  to  aid  in  the  distribution  of  light  was  intro- 
duced by  means  of  a  simple  chamfer.  In  later  Romanesque 
the  splay  was  deepened,  and  was  obtained  frequently  in 
window  and  door  by  means  of  multiple  orders.  It  was  thus 
given  architectural  dignity  as  well  as  utility.  Compound 
openings,  too,  were  evolved,  sometimes  of  two  lights,  some- 
times of  two  lights  embraced  by  a  blind  arch,  and  in  variants 
of  this  motive.  At  the  same  time  portals  were  ennobled  by 
elaborate  porches,  the  finest  being  those  of  Lombardy  and 
Burgundy. 

Decoration.  New  decorative  schemes  also  came  into  being. 
Figure  and  foliate  sculpture  was  applied  to  the  exterior,  at 
times  haphazardly  as  in  Lombardy,  at  times  with  extraor- 
dinary subservience  to  architectural  expression,  as  in  Pro- 
vence and  Languedoc.  In  addition,  new  motives  in  pure 


268        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

design,  like  the  Norman  zigzag  and  dog-tooth,  were  applied 
to  the  exterior  and  the  interior.  For  the  interior  new  sculpt- 
ured capitals  were  invented,  some  of  them  modified  classic  or 
Byzantine,  some  in  original  foliate  designs,  and  many  more  of 
the  "storied  capital"  type  in  which  the  purpose  was  didactic 
as  well  as  decorative  and  the  sculptures  represented  ecclesiasti- 
cal, mythological,  and  unidentifiable  scenes  of  the  greatest 
raciness  and  originality.  Polychromy  was  obtained  in  the 
interiors  by  means  of  paint.  On  the  exterior  its  use  varied 
with  the  style.  The  Tuscan  architects  got  fine  exterior 
effects  by  the  use  of  polychromatic  marble  veneer.  Outside 
of  Tuscany  polychromy  played  a  less  important  part  on  the 
exterior,  though  fine  effects  were  obtained  by  the  use  of  several 
sorts  of  stones  (Sicily),  by  patterned  brick  (Languedoc)  and 
the  like. 

Secular  architecture.  The  ensemble.  For  several  reasons  we 
may  omit  almost  entirely  any  consideration  of  the  secular 
architecture  and  the  ensemble  in  the  Romanesque  period. 
In  the  first  place  the  extant  Romanesque  secular  monuments 
are  few,  and  nearly  all  altered.  In  the  second  place  they 
differ  slightly,  except  in  the  application  of  detail,  from  the 
much  more  numerous  Gothic  buildings  of  the  same  type. 
This  does  not  mean  that  there  are  no  monuments  by  which 
we  may  judge  Romanesque  secular  architecture.  One  needs 
but  look  at  the  enceinte  of  Avila  (Castile,  Fig.  137)  to  see 
Romanesque  secular  building,  and  get  an  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  a  Romanesque  city  seen  from  without.  The 
impression  will,  however,  be  very  much  like  that  obtained  from 
a  similar  town,  say  Carcassonne  (Fig.  178),  of  the  Gothic 
period.  Single  secular  monuments,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
notably  castles  such  as  the  Wart  burg  at  Eisenach,  exist 
for  the  archeologist,  and  show  distinctive  arrangements 
especially  in  the  court  and  court  facades,  but  it  seems 
more  sensible  to  discuss  the  whole  question  of  medieval 
civil  and  domestic  architecture  in  connection  with  the  Gothic 
period. 

The  influence  of  Romanesque.  Finally,  something  should 
be  said  about  the  influence  of  Romanesque  architecture  on 
subsequent  styles.  The  influence  of  organic  Romanesque  on 
organic  French  Gothic  has,  of  course,  always  been  emphasized, 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE 


269 


but  other  equally  significant  examples  of  the  influence  of  this 
architecture  on  later  art  have  been  overlooked.  Few  people, 
as  they  admire  the  gorgeously  polychromatic  Gothic  cathedrals 
of  Tuscany  with  their  striped  interiors,  realize  that  these 
buildings  are  comparatively  slight  modifications  of  the  Tuscan 
Romanesque  style.  In  England  the  massive  Norman  con- 


FIG.    137 — AVILA.      GENERAL   VIEW   OF  THE   FORTIFICATIONS 


struction  was  handed  down  to  the  Gothic  style,  though  it  was 
disguised  by  what  was,  after  all,  but  an  applique"  of  pointed 
detail.  In  German  Gothic,  where  it  is  not  mere  imitation 
of  French  work,  we  note  the  picturesqueness  of  Rhenish 
Romanesque. 

Self-sufficiency  of  the  style.  Although  at  the  conclusion  of 
our  study  we  are  led  inevitably  to  assert  the  influence  of 
Romanesque  on  later  architecture,  we  should  be  at  the  greatest 
pains  to  avoid  the  common  error  of  thinking  of  the  architecture 
merely  as  one  of  transition.  It  was  a  heterogeneous  art,  and 
consequently  well  able  aptly  to  express  the  genius  of  not  one 
but  many  races.  Nevertheless, .  whatever  its  subdivisions, 


2 7o        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

it  was  primarily  a  self-sufficient,  independent  style.     To  re- 
gard it  in  any  other  light  is  wholly  to  miss  its  meaning. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   LIST  OF   MONUMENTS 

For  convenience  monuments  of  a  single  country  are  grouped 
together,  with  the  exception  of  Saint  Gall  (Switzerland),  which  is 
placed  under  Germany.  When  a  date  is  given  exactly  and  without 
qualification,  it  refers  to  the  beginning  of  the  portion  of  the  building 
referred  to  in  the  text.  Often  round  numbers,  half  centuries  or 
centuries,  are  all  that  are  possible  or  necessary,  and  at  times,  when  a 
building  has  been  remodeled  in  the  period  under  discussion,  several 
dates  are  given.  In  general  it  will  be  Well  to  call  to  mind  again  that 
an  error  in  dating  a  monument  usually  tends  to  give  it  greater  an- 
tiquity than  it  deserves. 

ITALY 

Milan,  San  Satiro. — Eighth  century. 
Como,  Sant'  Abondio. — C.  1035-95. 
Toscanella,  San  Pietro. — 1039—93. 
Pisa,  Cathedral. — Begun  1063. 

Milan,  Sant'  Ambrogio. — 1098  to  mid-twelfth  century. 
Modena. — Begun  1099;  consecrated  1184. 
Florence,  San  Miniato. — 1013  and  later. 
Parma. — 1117. 

Pavia,  San  Michele. — 1127  (?). 
Palermo,  Cappella  Palatina. — Before  1132. 
Verona,  San  Zeno. — Begun  1138. 
Cefalu. — 1145. 
Pisa,  Baptistry. — 1153-78. 
Pisa,  Campanile. — Begun  1174. 
Monreale. — 1 1 74789. 

Florence,    Baptistry.  —  Founded   seventh   or   eighth   century;    re- 
modeled c.  1 200. 

GERMANY 

Lorsch  (porch). — 774. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (Charlemagne's  chapel). — 796-804. 

Frankfort,  Salvatorskapelle. — 852. 

Saint  Gall  (Switzerland). — Ninth  century. 

Cologne,  Saint  Mary  of  the  Capitol. — After  1000.     (Founded  700.) 

Cologne,  the  Holy  Apostles. — Eleventh  to  thirteenth  century. 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          271 

Eisenach,  Wartburg. — Built  1067;  rebuilt  1130-50;  remodeled  1190. 

Hildesheim,  Saint  Michael. — Built  1001-33;    remodeled  1186. 

Speyer. — Founded  1030;    remodeled  twelfth  century. 

Driibeck. — Early  twelfth  century. 

Gernrode. — Founded  ninth  century;   rebuilt  twelfth  century. 

Paulinzelle. — Twelfth  century. 

TTT  rr\^ ifji 


Worms. — Twelfth  century 


w  orms. —  1  weirtn  century. 

Mainz. — Begun  978;   largely  thirteenth  century. 

FRANCE 

Beauvais,  Basse-CEuvre. — Eighth  century  (?). 

Germigny-les-Pres. — 80 1-806 . 

Montier-en-Der. — 960-998. 

Vignory. — 1050-52. 

Jumieges. — Begun  1040;    consecrated  1067. 

Clermont-Ferrand,  Notre  Dame  du  Port. — Mid-eleventh  century. 

Toulouse,  Saint  Sernin. — Begun  1080;  worked  on  in  twelfth  and 

thirteenth  centuries. 
Cluny. — 1089. 

Poitiers,  Notre  Dame  la  Grande. — End  eleventh  century. 
Tournus,  Saint  Philibert. — Eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Beaulieu-les-Loches. — Eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Angouleme. — 1 105-28. 
Perigueux,  Saint  Front. — C.  1120. 
Vezelay. — Rebuilt  1132. 

Caen,  Saint  Etienne. — Begun  1064;  vaults  c.  1135. 
Caen,  La  Trinite. — Begun  1062;  remodeled  c.  1140. 
Reims,  Saint  Remi. — Romanesque  parts  mo. 
Morienval. — Older  part  c.  1080;   later  1122. 
Auxerre,  Saint  Germain. — Tower,  early  twelfth  century. 
Autun. — First  half  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Beauvais,  Saint  Etienne. — Vaults  1 180,  but  building  planned  earlier. 
Saint  Gilles. — Late  twelfth  century. 
Saint  Saturnin. — Twelfth  century. 
Uzes. — Tower,  twelfth  century. 
Aries,  Saint  Trophime. — Nave,  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century; 

porch  second  half  of  the  twelfth. 

ENGLAND 

Earl's  Barton. — Early  eleventh  century  {?). 

London,  The  Tower,  Saint  John's  Chapel. — End  of  the  eleventh 
century. 


272        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Durham. — C.  1006-1133. 
Iffley. — Late  twelfth  century. 

SPAIN 

Santullano. — Ninth  century. 
San  Miguel  de  Linio. — Ninth  century. 
Santa  Maria  de  Naranco. — Late  ninth  century. 
Avila,  the  Walls. — 1090-99. 

Compostela,  Santiago. — Begun  1075;    finished  1128. 
Leon,  San  Isidorp. — End  of  the  eleventh,  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

A.  Michel's  Histoire  de  VArt,  vol.  i,  pt.  2,  1905,  contains  a  brilliant 
and  authoritative  summary,  by  Camille  Enlart,  of  Romanesque 
architecture.  F.  von  Reber's  History  of  Medieval  Art,  1886,  is  a 
general  history,  now  out-of-date,  but  still  useful,  and  especially 
good  on  German  medieval  architecture.  E.  E.  Yiollet-le-Duc's 
Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  V architecture,  1884-88,  although  in  dictionary 
form,  is  a  history  of  architecture  in  many  volumes,  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  representing  probably  the  most  monumental  piece  of 
research  in  the  field  of  medieval  archeology.  G.  Dehio  and  G.  von 
Bezold's  Kirchliche  Baukunst  des  Abcndlandes,  1892-1901,  is  a 
scholarly  and  comprehensive  work,  with  many  plates  useful  for  the 
architect  and  student.  J.  A.  Brutail's  Uarcheologie  du  moyen  age, 
1900,  is  a  cautious  and  shrewd  study  in  medieval  archeology,  tending 
to  correct  the  mistakes  and  exaggerations  of  earlier  and  more  monu- 
mental works.  A.  Marignan's  Les  methodes  du  passe  dans  Varche- 
ologie  fravqaise,  1911,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  iconoclastic  book 
attacking  the  so-called  orthodox  school  of  medieval  archeology  in 
France.  It  is  interesting  as  representing  a  healthy  reaction  against 
dogmatism,  but  not  convincing.  J.  Quicherat's  Melanges  d'arche- 
ologie,  vol.  2,  Moyen  dge,  1886,  is  one  of  the  earlier  synthetic  books 
on  medieval  architecture,  important  at  the  time  of  publication  and 
not  to  be  neglected  to-day.  Anthyme  Saint-Paul's  Les  ecoles  romanes 
(Annuaire  d'archeolo^ie  francaise,  1878)  is  a  similar  early  work  of 
research,  by  one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  the  French  archeologists. 
L.  Courajod's  Origines  de  I'art  romane  el  gothique,  1889,  a  scholarly 
work,  is  more  important  for  Gothic  than  for  Romanesque  art,  but 
valuable  for  the  study  of  either.  T.  G.  Jackson's  Byzantine  and 
Rominssque  Architecture,  1913,  already  cited,  devotes  more  space  to 
Romanesque  than  to  Byzantine  architecture.  F.  M.  Simpson's  A 


ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE          273 

History  of  Architectural  Development,  vol.  2,  Medieval,  1909,  presents 
a  summary  of  medieval  architecture,  especially  clear  in  the  study  of 
the  development  of  details.  C.  H.  Moore's  The  Character  and 
Development  of  Gothic  Architecture,  1906,  is  a  powerful  study  in  Gothic 
architecture,  with  some  treatment  of  Romanesque  in  the  early 
chapters.  A.  K.  Porter's  Medieval  Architecture,  1909,  in  two  large 
volumes,  lavishly  illustrated,  represents  painstaking  research  in  the 
field.  It  is  important,  however,  only  for  organic  architecture. 

R.  Cattaneo's  Uarchitettura  in  Italia  dal  secolo  VI.  al  mille  circa, 
1889,  is  a  profound  piece  of  research  in  the  field  of  Italian  medieval 
architecture,  especially  important  for  Lombard  Romanesque.  F.  de 
Dartein's  L1  architecture  lombarde,  1865-82,  is  an  early  but  profound 
study  of  Lombard  Romanesque  architecture.  G.  T.  Rivoira's 
Le  origini  della  architettura  Lombarda,  1901-7,  already  cited,  is  of 
great  importance  for  the  study  of  Lombard  Romanesque.  A. 
K.  Porter's  four-volume  work,  Lombard  Architecture,  1917,  including 
an  exhaustive  portfolio  of  splendid  illustrations,  is  the  most  modern 
work  on  the  subject,  and  by  a  scholar  of  universally  recognized  au- 
thority. A.  Venturi's  Storia  delVarte  Italiana,  vols.  2  and  3,  1902  and 
1 904, are  subdivisions  of  an  encyclopedic  history  of  Italian  art,  already 
cited,  important  for  the  publication  of  new  material  and  profuse 
illustrations.  E.  Bertaux's  L'art  dans  I'ltalie  mfridionale,  1904, 
presents  an  exhaustive  publication  of  research  in  the  field  of  south 
Italian  medieval  architecture.  It  was  followed  in  191 1  by  A.  Avena's 
Monumenti  deWItalia  meridionale,  covering  all  the  monuments  of 
the  district,  but  especially  important,  both  in  text  and  superb  illustra- 
tions, for  Romanesque  architecture.  C.  A.  Cummings's  A  History 
of  Architecture  in  Italy,  1901,  is  a  popular,  accurate,  and  well-illus- 
trated work  on  Italian  medieval  architecture.  There  are  two  volumes, 
the  first  important  for  Romanesque  architecture. 

H.  Otte's  Geschichte  der  romanischen  Baukunst,  1874,  though  old, 
is  an  exhaustive  and  scholarly  work  on  German  Romanesque  archi- 
tecture. A.  von  Haupt's  Die  Baukunst  der  Germanen  von  der  Volk- 
erwanderung  bis  zu  Karl  dem  Grossen,  1909,  is  a  modern  work  by  a 
profound  student  of  the  architecture  of  the"  dark  ages,  using  the 
term  "German"  in  the  broadest  sense,  and  discussing  the  architect- 
ure throughout  Europe.  R.  Adamy's  Die  frankische  Thorhalle  zu 
Lorsch,  1891,  an  exhaustive  work  on  a  single  monument,  is  here 
mentioned  on  account  of  the  light  it  throws  on  the  whole  move- 
ment of  the  architecture  of  the  dark  ages.  B.  Ebhardt's  Deutsche 
Bur  gen,  1901,  is  an  illuminating  work  on  the  German  medieval 
castle. 

C.  Enlart's  U  architecture  religieuse  en  France,  1902,  is  an  exhaus- 
tive study  of  French  medieval  church  architecture,  really  carrying 


274        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

on  the  work  of  Viollet-le-Duc.  The  same  author's  U  architecture 
civile  et  militaire  en  France,  1904,  is  a  similar  work  on  medieval 
secular  architecture.  R.  de  Lasteyrie's  U  architecture  religieuse  a 
Vepoque  romane,  1912,  is  the  most  up-to-date  and  authoritative 
work  on  Romanesque  architecture,  devoted  principally  to  the  style 
in  France.  J.  Baum's  Romanesque  Architecture  in  France,  191 2,  pre- 
sents a  collection  of  excellent  reproductions  of  French  Romanesque 
buildings,  with  an  introduction  (translated)  by  Dr.  Julius  Baum. 
F.  de  Verneihl's  L' architecture  byzantine  en  France,  1851,  gives  the 
old  point  of  view  of  Aquitanian  architecture  in  a  scholarly  way. 
H.  Revoil's  L' architecture  romane  dans  le  midi  de  la  France,  1873,  is 
an  old  but  exhaustive  work  on  the  Romanesque  architecture  of  south- 
ern France.  V.  Mortet's  Recueil  de  textes  relatif  a  I' 'architecture  en 
France,  1911,  presents  a  collection  of  original  documents,  relating  to 
the  nth  and  i2th  century  architecture  of  France,  in  an  illumi- 
nating way.  V.  Ruprich-Robert's  L' architecture  normande,  1884-89, 
is  a  monumental  book  of  research  on  French  and  English  Norman 
Romanesque  architecture,  lavishly  illustrated. 

T.  Rickman's  An  Attempt  to  Discriminate  the  Styles  of  Architecture  in 
England,  1881,  a  work  now  out  of  date  and  more  important  for 
Gothic  than  for  Romanesque  architecture,  is  significant  as  a  step  in 
the  analysis  of  English  church  architecture.  Similarly,  E.  Sharpe's 
The  Seven  Periods  of  English  Architecture,  1871,  a  more  elaborate 
classification  of  English  medieval  architecture,  is  more  important 
for  Gothic  than  for  Romanesque.  G.  G.  Scott's  English  Church 
Architecture,  1881,  is  a  synthetic  work  by  a  learned  author,  devoted 
primarily  to  Gothic  architecture,  but  treating  Romanesque.  C.  H. 
Moore's  The  Medieval  Church  Architecture  of  England,  1912,  is  a 
broad  elaboration  of  the  point  of  view  toward  English  medieval 
architecture  revealed  in  the  author's  Gothic  Architecture.  It  is  a 
somewhat  biased  but  up-to-date  and  scholarly  book.  F.  Bond's 
An  Introduction  to  English  Church  Architecture,  1913,  is  an  exhaustive, 
scholarly,  and  up-to-date  work,  lavishly  illustrated,  on  English  church 
architecture  from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  century.  J.  D. 
Mackenzie's  The  Castles  of  England,  1887,  an  exhaustive,  elaborate, 
and  richly  illustrated  volume,  is  excellent  for  the  study  of  the  English 
medieval  castle. 

V.  Lamperez  y  Romea's  Historia  de  la  Arquiteciura  Cristiana  Es- 
panola  en  la  Edad  Media,  1909,  is  by  far  the  most  original  and  exhaus- 
tive work  on  medieval  Spanish  architecture.  A.  G.  B.  Schayes's 
Histoire  de  I1  architecture  en  Belgique,  1850-60,  a  work  of  several 
volumes,  now  out  of  date,  is  still  the  important  authority  on  the 
medieval  architecture  of  Flanders. 


CHAPTER  IX 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Origin  of  the  term.  The  word  "Gothic,"  applied  to  art, 
originated  as  a  term  of  opprobrium.  From  the  beginning  of 
the  Renaissance  to  the  romantic  revival  in  the  nineteenth 
century  medieval  art  was  regarded  as  barbaric.  The  most 
striking  as  well  as  the  most  numerous  monuments  of  medieval 
architecture  were  those  of  the  pointed  style,  and  these  came  to 
be  called  "Gothic"  as  a  synonym  for  "barbaric."  It  is  in 
this  sense  that  Moliere  speaks  of 

.  .  .  Le  fade  gout  des  monuments  gothiques 
Ces  monstres  odieux  des  siecles  ignorants 
Que  de  la  barbaric  ont  vomis  les  torrents.  .  .  .1 

Boileau,  La  Bruyere,  Rousseau,  attacked  Gothic  art  with  a 
violence  at  once  bitter  and  illuminating.  By  the  time  taste 
changed  the  word  was  fixed.  Now  the  oblivion  which 
generally  shrouds  the  origin  of  the  name  is  perhaps  the  best 
proof  of  the  vindication  of  the  art. 

Priority  of  France.  At  the  period  of  its  development, 
Gothic  architecture  was  generally  called  "French  work" 
(opus  Jrancigenum)  and  the  priority  of  France  in  the  style  is 
thus  attested.  For  this  reason  some  writers  have  urged  that 
the  style  be  called  not  Gothic,  but  French.  Such  a  change 
would  be,  however,  not  only  impractical  but  misleading.  As 
a  variant  of  this  classification,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the 
word  Gothic  be  retained,  but  that  it  be  applied  only  to  the 

1  The  rank  taste  of  Gothic  monuments, 
These  odious  monsters  of  the  ignorant  centuries, 
Which  the  torrents  of  barbarism  spewed  forth. 


FLOR.ENCE 


SALISBURY 


FIG.    138 — COMPARATIVE    PLANS   OF   GOTHIC  CATHEDRALS   IN   FRANCE, 
GERMANY,    ITALY   AND   ENGLAND 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  277 

architecture  of  the  lie  de  France,  and  that  the  contemporary 
styles  outside  of  France  be  called  merely  "pointed  architect- 
ure." In  support  of  this  attitude  it  has  been  pointed  out 
that  fundamentally  organic  architecture  was  developed  in  the 
He  de  France,  and  the  so-called  Gothic  styles  of  other  countries 
either  consisted  of  imitation  of  this  or  of  a  superficial  applica- 
tion of  pointed  or  Gothic  detail  to  buildings  which  were  con- 
structed according  to  Romanesque  principles. 

Definition  of  organic  Gothic.  There  are,  however,  grave 
objections  to  this  point  of  view.  Regarded  strictly  from  the 
point  of  view  of  organic  structure,  Gothic  is  a  system  of  vaults, 
supports,  and  buttresses,  the  supports  being  strong  enough  to 
bear  the  crushing  weight  of  the  vaults  only,  and  the  stability 
of  the  structure  maintained  chiefly  by  an  equilibrium  of 
counterthrusts.  Such  a  system  is  to  be  found  perfected  only 
in  the  lie  de  France  or  in  imitations  of  the  architecture  of 
that  district.  Many  buildings  of  the  same  age,  however, 
though  they  lack  the  complete  organism  of  the  French,  display 
the  same  characteristics,  especially  the  consistent  use  Of  the 
pointed  arch.  In  France  the  systematic  use  of  the  pointed 
arch  became  general  for  structural  reasons.  In  other  countries 
that  member  was  used  unstructurally,  apparently  for  esthetic 
reasons,  but  this  does  not  justify  the  argument,  which  so  often 
appears  in  books,  that  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch  outside  of 
the  He  de  France  represents  but  a  superficial  application  of 
French  detail  to  Romanesque  building  by  architects  who  did 
not  understand  the  structural  reasons  which  underlay  the  use 
of  this  detail  in  France.  As  we  have  seen,  the  pointed  arch 
was  used  in  the  Romanesque  period,  and  its  use  for  esthetic 
purposes  in  England  developed  synchronously  with  its  use 
for  structural  reasons  in  France. 

French  the  great  organic  Gothic,  but  not  the  only  Gothic  style. 
Use  of  the  term.  We  must,  therefore,  avoid  the  mistake  of 
calling  Gothic  architecture  solely  French,  or  French  Gothic 
the  only  Gothic.  Aside  from  the  futility  of  tilting  at  firmly 
established  terms,  a  broader  application  of  the  term  is  more 
convenient.  We  may  consider  Gothic  architecture  that  style, 
specially  marked  by  the  general  use  of  the  pointed  arch,  which 
in  all  European  countries  succeeded  the  Romanesque  style, 
and  flourished  until  it  was  in  turn  superseded  by  the  style  of 


S.EU5ABETH     AURBTOO 


CHATEAU  DE    COUCY 


SEVlLLt 
FIG.    139 — PLANS   OF   GOTHIC   BUILDINGS 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  279 

the  Renaissance.  We  may  then  subdivide  the  field  and 
examine  the  characteristics  of  the  art  in  any  one  region.  In 
so  doing,  however,  we  must  inevitably  emphasize  the  struct- 
ural superiority  and  priority  of  the  organic  architecture  of 
the  He  de  France. 

Esthetic  effect  of  revealed  structure.  So  true  is  this  of  the 
Gothic  of  the  lie  de  France  that  the  chief  esthetic  effect  of 
the  buildings  of  that  district  is  felt  in  the  logical  expression 
of  the  structure.  Outside  of  France  this  is  not  true,  except 
in  works  clearly  under  French  influence. 

Lack  of  self -consciousness.  Whether  governed  by  structural 
or  esthetic  considerations,  the  Gothic  style  was  developed 
inarticulately.  Its  architects  did  not  seek  to  formulate,  at 
least  in  writing,  the  ideas  which  their  buildings  expressed. 
Though  the  pointed  arch  almost  completely  superseded  the 
round  one,  there  was  no  audible  condemnation  of  the  Roman- 
esque art  of  the  past,  as  the  Gothic  art  was  later  condemned 
in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance. 

Socialistic  character.  This  naivete  may  well  have  been 
caused  by  the  corporate  quality  of  the  work,  for  the  Gothic 
cathedral,  like  the  Romanesque,  was  the  expression  not  of 
an  architect,  or  a  patron,  but  of  a  community.  It  is  signifi- 
cant that,  though  archeology  has  often  published  the  names 
of  the  architects,  or  magistri  operarii,  of  the  great  Gothic 
cathedrals,  these  names  are  almost  universally  unfamiliar 
and  unnoted.  The  cathedrals  of  Amiens  and  Reims  are  as 
well  known  as  those  of  Florence  and  Rome,  yet  people  who 
would  be  ashamed  not  to  know  about  Brunelleschi  or  Bramante 
would  look  blank  at  the  mention  of  Robert  de  Luzarches  or 
Jean-le-Loup.  In  a  sense  Gothic  art  is  strongly  socialistic. 

Ecclesiastical  and  secular  interest.  Although  the  main 
interest  in  the  Gothic  period  is  in  ecclesiastical  building,  it  is 
not  so  completely  so  as  in  the  Romanesque  period  preceding 
it.  Especially  in  late  Gothic  times  civil  and  military  buildings 
attained  great  importance.  The  scholar  must,  therefore, 
examine  not  only  churches  and  monasteries,  but  town  and 
guild  halls,  castles,  manors,  farms,  city  houses,  and  even  well 
heads  and  gibbets  to  gain  anything  like  a  complete  acquaint- 
ance with  the  style.  Moreover  it  must  not  be  assumed  that 
the  craftsmen  employed  even  on  the  churches  in  the  Gothic 


PAMi 


_<tO      to       go     gy 


FLOREVCE 


SALISBURY 


AMTEMS 


FIG.    140— SECTIONS   AND    SYSTEMS    OF    GOTHIC    BUILDINGS 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


281 


period  were  ecclesiastics.  Great  bands  of  lay  builders,  like 
the  maestri  comacini,  traveled  from  place  to  place  as  they 
were  employed  successively  on  one  great  building  after  another. 
This  fact,  and  the  frequent  presence  of  blasphemous  and 
obscene  carvings  in  Gothic  churches,  has  given  rise  to  a  theory 
that  Gothic  architecture  is  essentially  a  style  of  lay  construc- 
tion, and  repre- 
sents a  revolt 
against  the  monk- 
ish domination  of 
an  earlier  age. 
The  facts  do  not 
bear  out  such  a 
theory,  nor  does 
the  profoundly 
religious  expres- 
sion of  the  fin- 
ished building. 

Gradual  em- 
phasis on  revealed 
structure.  Though 
in  France  the  most 
important  expres- 
sion of  the  devel- 
oped cathedral  lay 
in  the  self-revela- 
tion of  its  struct- 
ure, the  realiza- 
tion of  the  esthetic 
importance  of  re- 
vealed structure 
did  not  come  to 
the  builders  im- 
mediately. In  the  beginning  such  essential  structural  mem- 
bers as  flying  buttresses,  which  later  came  to  be  one  of  the 
most  important  features  externally,  were  concealed.  The 
evolution  of  Gothic  from  Romanesque  may  be  traced  by  the 
gradual  acceptance  of  revealed  structure  as  the  most  im- 
portant aid  to  esthetic  effect. 

Aspiring  quality.     The  aspiring  quality  of  the  art  has  often 


FIG.     141 — AMIENS.       WEST    FRONT    OF    THE 
CATHEDRAL 


282         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

been  noted.  The  emphasis  on  the  vertical  line,  the  soaring 
expression  of  the  architecture,  inevitably  suggest  all  that  was 
finest  in  the  religious  ideals  of  the  Middle  Ages.  To  see, 
however,  in  the  vertical  lines  and  branching  ribs  of  the  Gothic 
church  a  reflection  of  the  poetic  sylvan  setting  of  primitive 
pagan  ceremonies  is  to  wander  in  the  realms  of  pure  fancy. 
Aside  from  the  source  of  inspiration,  however,  the  Gothic 
architect  was  very  clever  at  gaining  the  effects  he  sought. 
Desiring  height,  above  all,  he  narrowed  his  naves  and  tapered 
his  piers  to  exaggerate  this  effect.  The  desired  impression 
of  size  he  got  "by  including  and  multiplying  small  members 
admirably  adapted  to  give  scale. 

Date.  In  date  the  Gothic  period  extended  roughly  from 
1150  to  1550.  Certain  indications  of  the  approaching  style 
do,  of  course,  antedate  the  mid-twelfth  century,  just  as  certain 
isolated  structures  in  the  Flamboyant  Gothic  style  postdate 
the  mid-sixteenth,  but  in  general  the  four  centuries  indicated 
compass  the  style. 

Homogeneity.  Gothic  architecture  had  a  national  homo- 
geneity much  greater  than  Romanesque.  Though  there  are 
local  schools  of  Gothic  in  France,  they  do  not  differ  one  from 
another  so  markedly  as  did  the  Romanesque,  nor  are  they  as 
numerous.  This  fact  is  precisely  what  history  would  lead  us 
to  expect.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages  nations  themselves  had 
become  more  homogeneous.  Central  authority  became 
stronger,  language  purer,  and  individuals  more  conscious  of 
their  own  nationality.  In  districts  where  less  federal  authority 
was  felt  and  where  national  consciousness  was  less  awakened, 
as  in  southwestern  France,  it  is  significant  that  local  schools 
of  architecture  differed  especially  from  the  national  style.  As 
always,  we  find  architecture  recording  history,  and  history 
impressing  architecture. 

General  development.  Before  attempting  even  a  classifica- 
tion, it  will  be  well  to  say  a  word  about  the  development  of 
the  style  as  a  whole.  Our  point  of  departure  must  clearly  be 
the  transitional  architecture  of  the  lie  de  France.  Although 
many  English  writers  have  called  attention  to  the  early  use 
of  the  pointed  arch  in  England,  the  English  buildings  can, 
nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  Romanesque  and  not  transitional 
Gothic.  Subsequent  variations  of  the  style  sometimes  neglect- 


FIG.  142 — AMIENS.     THE  CATHEDRAL.     VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR,  LOOKING 
INTO    THE   APSE 


284        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

ed  organic  structure,  but  organic  structure  plays  so  funda- 
mental a  rdle  in  the  art  that  to  the  country  which  developed 
it  belongs  priority  in  the  style.  The  late  twelfth  century  and 
the  early  thirteenth  saw  the  transition  and  development  of 
the  organic  Gothic  style  in  the  He  de  France.  By  1220  (the 
date  of  the  foundation  of  Amiens  cathedral)  the  style  was  well 
understood,  and  the  thirteenth  century  is  the  age  of  early  but 
fully  developed  Gothic.  Building  in  this  style,  with  refine- 
ment and  superficial  modification,  continued  in  France  through 
the  fourteenth  century,  but  toward  the  close  of  the  period  a 
radical  change  came  over  the  art.  Flamboyant  architecture 
was  developed,  having  been  introduced  from  England. 

Development  in  England.  Origin  of  continental  Flamboyant 
architecture.  England,  as  we  have  seen,  used  the  pointed 
arch  at  an  early  period,  but  the  first  truly  Gothic  buildings  on 
British  soil  represent  French  influence.  The  early  style, 
called  early  English,  or  Lancet,  coincided  with  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  form  of  English  Gothic,  however,  soon  changed. 
The  Englishmen  in  power  in  the  late  Middle  Ages  were  scarcely 
more  than  naturalized  Frenchmen  and  inevitably  borrowed 
from  France.  Quite  as  inevitably,  however,  they  changed 
what  they  borrowed  and  impressed  it  with  their  own  genius. 
In  the  fourteenth  century,  therefore,  the  English  Gothic  style 
assumed  a  new  expression,  and  the  Decorated  style  came  into 
being.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century  Decorated  details 
were  copied  in  France,  and  the  fifteenth  century  Flamboyant 
(or  flaming)  style  was  developed  along  lines  suggested  by  the 
late  Decorated  or  Curvilinear  style  in  England.  This  Flam- 
boyant style  spread  from  France  all  over  the  continent,  and 
is  characteristic  of  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  century  architecture 
outside  of  England.  England,  once  more  asserting  her 
originality,  developed  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  Perpendicu- 
lar style  which  flourished  there  until  the  advent  of  the 
Renaissance. 

Classification.  France.  With  this  general  development  in 
mind,  we  may  attempt  a  fuller  classification,  and  number  the 
various  centers  of  activity  in  the  Gothic  period.  France  we 
have  put  at  the  head,  and  in  France  we  must  give  priority 
to  the  He  de  France.  Normandy  nearly  kept  pace  with  the 
He  de  France  in  creative  activity,  and  Picardy  and  Artois  can 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  285 

scarce  be  classified  apart  from  these  two.  Together  these 
districts  formed  the  home  of  developing  organic  Gothic.  Other 
divisions  are  less  important.  Burgundy  had  a  style  of  its  own, 
retaining  the  porches,  often  the  square  ends,  and  other  feat- 
ures reminiscent  of  Burgundian  Romanesque.  Another  divi- 
sion might  be  made  of  Champagne,  midway  between  Bur- 
gundy and  the  lie  de  France,  though  approaching  so  close  to 
the  latter  architecturally  that  the  subdivision  is  hardly  neces- 
sary. A  very  original  style,  the  so-called  Plantagenet,  flour- 
ished in  southwestern  France,  and  was  marked  by  the  use  of 
aisles  the  height  of  the  nave,  by  unusual  domed  vaults,  and 
other  peculiar  features,  showing  strong  English  affinities. 
Still  another  style  developed  in  the  south,  bare  in  decoration 
and  characterized  by  a  free  use  of  terra  cotta.  Further  divi- 
sions might  be  made  of  Brittany,  architecturally  as  well  as 
geographically  close  to  Normandy,  and  central  France,  where 
flourished  a  hybrid  partaking  of  the  characteristics  of  many 
styles.  We  must,  therefore,  note  that,  though  Gothic  archi- 
tecture had  more  national  homogeneity  in  France  than  Ro- 
manesque, it  did  vary  decidedly  according  to  the  district,  and 
the  point  must  be  more  insisted  upon,  since  we  must  concen- 
trate attention  on  the  structurally  important  architecture  of 
the  north  and  are  in  danger  of  forgetting  the  divergences  of 
the  style  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

England,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain.  Outside  of  France 
the  problem  is  simpler  and  the  style  varied  with  the  period 
rather  than  the  district.  In  England,  for  example,  though 
the  Perpendicular  style  differed  widely  from  the  Lancet,  each 
is  found  throughout  the  country  during  its  period.  In  Ger- 
many we  find  generally  an  imitation  of  French  work.  At 
times  this  imitation  is  almost  slavish,  as  in  the  cathedral  of 
Cologne;  at  times  it  is  very  free,  as  in  the  so-called  Hallen- 
kirchen.  One  may,  therefore,  subdivide  the  German  buildings 
into  two  groups,  the  one  imitative,  the  other  with  a  strongly 
native  flavor.  In  Italy  Gothic  architecture  began  as  an 
importation  of  the  French  Cistercian  style,  but  was  almost 
immediately  modified  to  suit  the  esthetic  demands  of  the 
Italians.  Here  geography  played  some  part,  as  in  Tuscany, 
where  the  Tuscan  Romanesque  so  stamped  the  Gothic  art  of 
the  district,  but  the  chief  variation  was  caused  by  the 


A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


individual  source  of  inspiration  and  by  date.  In  Spain  the 
style  was  generally  homogeneous.  In  the  beginning  it  was  an 
importation  from  Languedoc  and  Auvergne,  soon  modified, 
especially  in  the  south,  however,  by  Moorish  detail  and 
Spanish  taste. 

Gothic  in  other  countries.  In  the  Low  Countries  Gothic  was 
imported  from  France  and  shows  little  originality  except  in 
secular  architecture.  The  town  halls  and  guild  halls  of 
Flanders,  however,  show  an  originality  which  gives  the  district 
real  importance.  Finally,  attention  must  be  called  to  the 


DOMICAL    RIBBED   VAULT 


DEVELOPED     GOTHIC    VAULT 


FIG.    143 — EXAMPLES  OF  MEDIEVAL  VAULTS 


important  architecture  which  was  built,  and  much  of  which 
still  remains,  in  the  Holy  Land,  in  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  Crete, 
and  other  islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  For  these  monuments 
we  have,  of  course,  to  thank  the  crusaders. 

Importance  of  the  development  of  details.  Unfortunately  for 
the  logical  student,  one  cannot  select  a  number  of  buildings 
which  exhibit  in  chronological  order  the  steps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  organic  Gothic  architecture.  Progress  was  so  rapid  and 
buildings  so  seldom  homogeneously  completed  that  the  ad- 
vance of  the  style  may  best  be  illustrated  by  selecting  one  or 
more  details  from  many  buildings.  One  may  then  arrange 
these  details  to  show  the  steps  in  the  development  of  organic 
Gothic,  even  though  the  arrangement  be  not  necessarily 
chronological.  Archeologists  may  dispute  as  to  the  locality 
and  date  of  the  first  single  flying  buttress,  but  for  us  it  will  be 


287 

enough  to  recognize  that  the  single  flying  buttress,  occurring 
as  it  does  in  many  buildings,  represents  a  structural  step 
between  the  hidden  flying  buttress  and  the  double  one. 
With  a  grasp  of  the  development  of  the  important  Gothic 
features,  we  are 
then  in  a  position 
to  reconstruct  a 
fully  developed 
organic  Gothic 
building,  or,  if  we 
prefer  concrete 
examples,  to  un- 
derstand why  the 
naves  of  Amiens 
(Figs.  138  and 
142)  and  of  Reims 
(Fig.  144)  _  have 
been  considered 
perfect  examples 
of  the  fully  devel- 
oped early  style. 

The  vault.  The 
most  important 
single  feature  of 
the  Gothic  build- 
ing is,  of  course, 
the  vault.  Indeed 
the  whole  study  of 
Gothic  architect- 
ure hinges  upon 
the  treatment  of 
the  vault  and  its 
abutment.  In 
connection  with 

the  Romanesque  architecture  of  the  He  de  France  we 
have  seen  that  architects  came  to  realize  that  the  vault 
with  level  crowns  could  be  made  lighter  and  constructed 
more  flexibly  than  the  domical  vault.  To  make  the 
crowns  of  the  vault  level  it  was  necessary  obviously  to 
raise  the  crowns  of  the  transverse  and  longitudinal  arches. 


FIG.  144 — REIMS.  THE  CATHEDRAL.  VIEW  OF 
THE  VAULTS  AFTER  THE  FIRST  BOMBARDMENT  IN 
1914,  SHOWING  THE  LEVEL  CROWNS  OF  DEVELOPED 
GOTHIC  VAULTS 


288 


A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


This  could  be  done  either  by  stilting  or  by  pointing  these 
arches  or  by  doing  both.  When  the  pointed  arch  was 
thus  structurally  used  for  the  first  time  transitional  Gothic 
began.  Just  where  or  just  when  this  first  occurred  it  is  im- 
possible to  say.  That  the  process  was  slow  and  experimental 
can  be  proved  by  many  monuments,  like  the  churches  of 

Creil,  Langres,  and  Morien- 
val,  where  the  transverse 
arches  are  not  sufficiently 
pointed,  and  are  pieced  out 
by  flat  walls  built  above 
them,  which  raise  the  crowns 
of  the  arches  to  a  point  level, 
or  nearly  level,  with  the  point 
of  intersection  of  the  diagonal 
ribs  or,  in  other  words,  the 
crown  of  the  vault.  Once  this 
plan  was  tried  and  found  suc- 
cessful, the  advantages  of  the 
level  -  crowned  vault  were 
realized  and  the  use  of  this 
graceful,  essentially  Gothic 
form  became  the  rule  (Figs. 
140,  143,  and  144). 

The  abutment.     With  the 
copyright  by  Macmiiian  &  Co.  creation  of  a  lighter,  loftier 

FIG.  145— SECTION  OF  GOTHIC  VAULT-  form  f  ^t  came  mQre 
ING  CONOID,  SHOWING  THE  DIREC-  . 

TIONS  OF  THE  THRUSTS  AND  THEIR  searching  study  ot  its  abut- 
ABUTMENTS  ment.  Even  when  the  hid- 

den flying  buttress  was  used  in  Norman  Romanesque  the 
thrusts  of  the  vault  were  but  partially  concentrated  on 
it,  and  much  of  the  resistance  to  them  was  supplied  by  a 
sturdy  wall.  The  Gothic  architect  was  slowly  feeling  his  way 
toward  a  complete  elimination  of  the  wall,  the  place  of  which 
was  ultimately  to  be  taken  by  stained  glass,  and  his  greatest 
problem  was  the  concentration  of  the  vault  thrust  on  the 
buttress  which  was  to  oppose  it. 

Stilting  of  the  longitudinal  rib.  The  solution  of  the  problem 
came  in  the  stilting  of  the  longitudinal  ribs.  In  Romanesque 
architecture  all  ribs  sprang  from  the  same  level.  A  horizontal 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


289 


section  of  the  vault  and  its  infilling  some  feet  above  the 
springing,  at  a  point  where  the  ribs  had  had  a  chance  to 
spread,  would  be  square.  The  whole  mass  exerted  a  thrust 
outward,  however,  so  that  a  buttress  to  oppose  it  had  to  have 
a  face  as  broad  as  one  side  of  the  square,  or  as  the  distance 
from  one  diagonal 
at  the  given  level 
to  the  other  at  the 
same  level.  By 
the  stilting  of  the 
longitudinal  rib 
all  this  was 
changed.  While 
the  diagonal  ribs 
began  to  spread 
at  the  main  im- 
post the  two  long- 
itudinals ran  up 
vertically  some 
distance  before 
springing,  thus 
pinching  in  the 
vault  on  the  wall 
side.  A  cross- 
section  of  the 
vault  and  its  in- 
filling, or  vaulting 
conoid  as  we  may 
call  it,  at  a  point 
some  distance 
above  the  main 

impost,  would  be  not  square,  but  triangular,  one  angle 
of  the  conoid  touching  the  wall  (Fig.  145).  The  oblique 
thrusts  of  the  diagonal  ribs  thus  met  and  pushed  out  at  right 
angles  to  the  long  axis  of  the  building  in  the  direction  of  the 
thrust  of  the  transverse  rib,  and  all  these  thrusts  were  con- 
centrated on  a  narrow  surface  against  which  the  narrow  face 
of  an  opposing  buttress  could  be  placed.  The  stilting  of 
the  longitudinal  rib  thus  accomplished  what  the  architect 
most  desired — a  perfect  concentration  of  the  vault  thrusts 


FIG.  146 — SAINT  LEU  D  ESSERENT.  VIEW  OF  THE 
INTERIOR,  SHOWING  THE  VAULTS  AND,  THROUGH 
THE  WINDOWS,  THE  FLYING  BUTTRESSES 


29o        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

against  a  narrow  surface.  Such  a  form  involved  a  warping  of 
the  vault  web,  and  its  surface  now  took  on  the  peculiar,  plow- 
share form,  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  describe  geometri- 
cally, but  which  the  builders  soon  learned  to  construct  with 
remarkable  skill  (Figs.  142  and  146). 

Flying  buttresses.     While  the  vault  with  its   concentrated 
thrusts  was  being  evolved,  architects  were   no  less  busy  in 


5-AMBRoGio          &GEKMEII  DE  FLY      5 GERMAIN  DES  Pnts 


REIMS 


FIG.   147— ARRANGEMENT  OF  MONUMENTS  AND  DETAILS  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BUTTRESS  AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FACADE 


developing  buttress  forms  to  stabilize  it.  The  hidden  flying 
buttress,  designed  to  carry  the  thrust  over  the  aisle  roofs  to 
pier  buttresses  on  the  outer  wall,  was  to  hand  in  Norman 
Romanesque,  and  though  this  type  was  wofully  inadequate,  it 
was  adopted  in  a  modified  and  refined  form  in  the  transitional 
church  of  Saint  Germer-de-Fly.  Obviously  such  buttresses 
touched  the  wall  at  a  point  too  low  properly  to  meet  the  thrusts 
of  the  nave  vault,  and  the  architects  soon  raised  them  above 
the  aisle  roof,  as  at  Saint  Germain-des-Pres,  Paris,  where  they 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


291 


appear  on  the  exterior  as  genuine  flying  buttresses.  A  virtue 
was  then  made  of  necessity,  and  the  flying  buttresses  were 
soon  one  of  the  most  esthetically  expressive  as  well  as  struct- 
urally important  features  of  the  building. 

Their  development.  Structural  logic  ruled  their  develop- 
ment. Architects,  knowing  that  the  chief  points  of  thrust  of 
an  arch  or  vault  were  at  the 
springing  and  at  the  haunch, 
soon  abandoned  the  single  but- 
tress, with  its  single  arch,  and 
composed  a  double  one,  with  an 
arch  to  oppose  the  thrust  of  the 
vault  at  the  springing  and  an- 
other for  that  at  the  haunch. 
When  the  buttresses  sprang 
over  a  single  aisle  this  form  was 
adequate;  when  the  aisles  were 
double  the  first  pair  of  arches 
came  to  an  end  between  the 
inner  and  outer  aisles,  where  a 
pier  was  placed,  and  two  more 
arches,  repeating  the  first  two, 
carried  the  thrusts  to  the  outer 
wall.  The  former  system  may 
be  seen  in  the  nave  of  Amiens, 
the  latter  in  the  apsidal  end  of 
Reims  (Fig.  147).  When  there 
were  no  aisles,  as  in  the  Sainte 
Chapelle  in  Paris,  the  pier  but- 
tress was  adequate  and  was  re- 
tained (Figs.  139  and  148). 

Their  form  and  decoration.  At  the  same  time  the  forms  of 
the  buttresses  were  refined.  Their  regular  pitch  was -estab- 
lished, and  they  were  made  to  carry,  by  means  of  covered 
channels,  the  water  which  gathered  on  the  nave  roofs.  At  the 
extremity  of  the  buttresses  this  water  was  thrown  clear  of 
the  face  of  the  wall  from  the  mouths  of  widely  projecting 
gargoyles,  grotesquely  carved.  The  backs  of  the  buttresses 
were  decorated  with  crockets,  and  the  tops  of  the  great  pier- 
buttresses,  to  which  the  arches  sprang,  were  weighted  with 


FIG.    148 — PARIS.      THE   SAINTE 
CHAPELLE.       TRANSVERSE     CUT 


292        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

pinnacles.  The  outer  side  of  these  great  piers  was  given 
many  set-offs,  which  tended  to  resist  the  weather  and  carry 
off  the  vault  thrusts  more  easily  to  the  ground. 

The  apse.  After  one  has  grasped  the  development  of  the 
vault  and  the  abutment,  that  of  other  features  is  easy  to 
understand.  A  single  principle  holds  for  all:  the  fulfilment 


FIG.    149 — PLANS   OF   THE   EAST   ENDS   OF   FIVE   GOTHIC   CHURCHES,  ILLUS- 
TRATING  THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   CHEVET 


of  structural  needs  and  the  recognition  of  the  esthetic  value 
of  such  a  fulfilment  frankly  revealed.  Let  us  examine,  for 
example,  the  development  of  the  apse.  Nothing  is  more 
characteristically  Gothic  than  the  tremendously  complicated 
chevet  or  east  end  of  the  French  Gothic  building,  yet  it  was 
attained  simply  and  logically  (Fig.  149).  The  primitive  form 
of  apse,  as  we  have  seen  it  in  early  Christian  times,  was  a 
semicircular  wall  covered  with  a  half-dome.  At  the  period 
of  the  earliest  transitional  Gothic,  the  form  of  the  half -dome 
was  changed  and  the  vault  given  cells  resembling  the  gores  of 
a  melon,  which  were  carried  on  ribs  in  harmony  with  the  other 
vaults.  Such  a  form,  though  not  necessarily  the  oldest 
example,  appears  at  Saint  Martin-des-Champs,  Paris.  The 
process  then  became  one  merely  of  deepening  the  cells,  or 
raising  their  crowns,  until  eventually  they  reached  the  level 
of  the  intersection  of  their  ribs.  An  intermediate  stage  may 
be  seen  at  Saint  Germer-de-Fly,  a  fully  developed  example  at 
Amiens.. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  293 

Arrangement  of  the  apsidal  ribs.  At  first  the  intersection  of 
the  apsidal  ribs  came  at  a  point  touching  the  last  transverse 
rib  of  the  choir,  as  at  Saint  Germer.  This  gave  the  ribs  the 
dangerous  appearance  of  all  thrusting  against  the  last  trans- 
verse arch  of  the  choir.  The  defect  was  remedied  in  many 
ways,  but  most  successfully  at  Amiens,  where  the  apse  was 
made  more  than  semicircular,  and  two  ribs  sprang  obliquely 
from  the  last  choir  imposts  to  meet  the  apsidal  ribs  at  their 
intersection.  All  the  ribs  were  then  radii  of  a  circle  (Fig.  149). 

The  ambulatory  and  apsidal  chapels.  Meanwhile  the 
ambulatory  and  apsidal  chapels  developed  apace.  The  vaults 
of  the  former,  being  not  rectangular  but  trapezoidal,  offered 
some  difficulty,  since  the  diagonal  ribs  would  not  meet  at  the 
center  of  the  vault.  This  was  remedied  by  breaking  these 


PARIS  o1h  PIER    PARIS  71h  PIER          AMIENS  BEAUVALS 

FIG.  150 — PLANS   ILLUSTRATING   THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GOTHIC  PIER 

ribs  at  the  intersection  and  thus  forcing  them  to  meet  at  the 
vault  center.  A  similar  arrangement  sufficed  for  the  ribs  of 
the  irregularly  shaped  apsidal  chapels  (Fig.  149). 

The  pier.  The  common  sense  of  the  Gothic  architect  and 
his  willingness  even  to  compromise  never  show  more  clearly 
than  in  the  treatment  of  the  piers.  The  most  logical  arrange- 
ment was  to  give  each  member  in  the  vault  a  place  in  the 
compound  pier,  and  carry  all  to  the  ground.  Such  a  cluster 
of  supports,  however,  took  up  much  floor  space  and  obstructed 
the  view  of  the  worshipper.  Accordingly  the  builder  first 
grouped  all  his  shafts  at  the  ground  story  impost,  and  gave 
his  main  pier  a  semicircular  form.  Feeling,  however,  that 
more  support  was  needed,  he  first  added  (at  the  sixth  pier  of 
the  nave  of  Paris)  a  single  engaged  shaft  on  the  nave  side  to 


294        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

carry  the  weight  of  the  nave  ribs  to  the  ground.  At  the 
seventh  pier  of  the  same  building  he  added  three  more  engaged 
shafts  on  the  three  remaining  sides  of  the  round  pier,  and  the 
fully  developed  Gothic  form  was  created  and  needed  only 
refinement  (Fig.  150).  The  old  Romanesque  system  of  each 
rib  being  represented  to  the  ground  in  the  pier  recurred, 


60)5  SONS 


AMIENS 


FIG.    151 — THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WINDOW  OPENING. 
PLATE  AND  BAR  TRACERY 


EXAMPLES   OF 


however,    in    French   Flamboyant    Gothic   and   in   English 
Perpendicular. 

The  opening.  Plate  tracery.  The  Gothic  system  of  construc- 
tion tended  inevitably  toward  the  suppression  of  the  wall. 
With  the  perfect  concentration  of  thrust,  the  function  of  the 
wall  became  one  merely  of  excluding  the  weather,  and  this 
could  be  done  as  adequately  by  glass  as  by  stone.  Moreover 
the  northern  builder  desired  glass,  as  the  southern  fresco,  for 
story-telling  and  didactic  purposes.  The  result  was  an  almost 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  295 

complete  substitution  of  stained  glass  for  stone  wall,  and  the 
building  became  as  it  were  a  vaulted  glass  cage.  The  unit  for 
the  development  of  the  opening  was  the  window  of  two  lights, 
separated  by  a  column  and  embraced  by  an  arch.  In 
Romanesque,  and  even  in  Byzantine,  architecture  the  stone 
tympanum  above  the  lights  had  been  pierced  with  a  third 
opening.  In  early  Gothic  these  openings  received  complicated 
geometric  forms,  and  plate  tracery,  a  tracery  consisting  of 
openings  in  geometric  design  pierced  in  a  thin  plate  of  stone, 
was  the  result. 

Bar  tracery.  While  the  architecture  was  still  developing, 
however,  architects  gradually  discovered  that  a  more  compli- 
cated and  beautiful  tracery  could  be  designed  if  the  system 
of  merely  piercing  a  stone  tympanum  were  abandoned,  and 
a  new  tracery  of  thin  stone  bars,  ingeniously  interlocking  on 
the  principle  of  the  arch,  were  substituted.  The  substitution 
of  bar  for  plate  tracery  became  general  in  the  later  transitional 
period,  and  remained  constant  in  Gothic  architecture.  The 
stone  bars,  or  mullions,  were  cut  very  thinly  and  delicately,  and 
were  merely  an  enframement  for  the  glass.  The  bits  of  glass, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  scarcely  ever  more  than  six  inches 
long,  were  joined  by  leads  which  at  once  bound  them  and 
supplied  most  of  the  drawing  in  the  design.  The  whole  was 
then  set  in  the  tracery.  The  swiftness  with  which  bar  tracery 
was  accepted  is  proved  in  the  cathedral  of  Paris  by  the  juxta- 
position of  windows  with  plate  and  bar  tracery  in  bays  differing 
only  slightly  in  date.  Good  examples  of  plate  tracery  may  be 
seen  at  Soissons,  and  of  bar  tracery  at  Amiens  and  later 
buildings  (Fig.  151). 

Wheel  and  rose  windows.  Bar  tracery  also  made  possible 
the  enormous  wheel  or  rose  windows  which  commonly  occurred 
in  the  west  end  of  the  churches  of  the  He  de  France.  At  first 
the  designs  for  these  were  severely  geometric,  but  later, 
especially  in  the  Flamboyant  period,  the  lines  were  freer  and 
bewilderingly  complicated.  Chartres  and  Reims  afford  good 
examples  of  the  early  wheel  window;  the  later  rose  may  be 
seen  at  Amiens  (Fig.  141)  and  elsewhere.  As  the  style 
developed,  the  passion  of  the  builders  for  lightness  caused 
them  to  fill  even  the  triforium  with  glass.  This  space, 

generally  blind  on  account  of  the  lean-to  roof  over  the  aisle, 
ii 


296        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

was  opened  by  covering  the  aisle  with  a  gable  instead  of  a 
lean-to.  In  fourteenth  century  buildings,  as  at  Troyes,  the 
triforium  is,  therefore,  lighted  like  the  clerestory. 

The  facade.  The  development  of  the  design  of  the  west 
front  kept  pace  with  that  of  the  other  elements  of  the  building. 
Logic  demanded  a  preservation  of  the 
tripartite  division  of  the  facade,  both  hori- 
zontally and  vertically,  to  indicate  the  in- 
terior division  of  the  nave  and  aisles  and 
the  three  stories.  Development  was  in  the 
direction  of  refinement  and  expressiveness. 
The  splaying  of  the  openings  was  deepened, 
and  porches  with  a  deep  splay  and  covered 
with  canopies  were  placed  in  front  of 
portals.  Openings  were  enlarged  until 
they  took  up  practically  all  the  space  be- 
tween the  buttresses  which  marked  the 
vertical  division  of  the  building.  In  time, 
as  at  Reims  and  later  buildings,  the  bases 
of  these  buttresses  were  lost  in  the  splay- 
ing of  the  porches,  and  the  gables  in  the 
porch  roofs  were  increased  in  size  and  im- 
portance until  they  became  striking  archi- 
tectural features.  Flanking  western  towers 
increased  in  size,  and  were  bound  by  a 
stone  gallery,  open,  which  revealed  the 
gable  roof  of  the  nave.  To  understand 
the  development  of  the  west  front,  one 
needs  but  examine  the  fronts  of  the  Abbaye- 
aux-Hommes  at  Caen,  of  the  cathedrals  of 
Senlis,  Paris,  Amiens,  and  Reims  in  that 
order.  Add  a  later  work,  like  the  west 
front  of  Abbeville,  as  an  example  of  the 
Flamboyant  development,  and  the  progres- 
sion will  be  self-revealed  (Fig.  147). 

The  spire.  The  spire  developed  in  like  manner.  Roman- 
esque architecture  had  shown  many  complicated  forms  of 
spires.  The  Gothic  development  was  merely  toward  the 
substitution  of  the  pointed  arch,  with  its  vertical  accent,  for 
the  round  one,  and  in  general  toward  a  more  skilful  suppression 


FIG.  152 CHARTRES. 

THE  SOUTHERN  SPIRE 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


297 


of  all  horizontal  lines  which  might  hamper  the  eye  from  being 

led  upward  (Fig.  152).     In  some  of  the  most  perfect  examples, 

as  at  Senlis  (Fig.  153),  the  transition  between  the  square  tower 

and  the  octagonal  spire  is  made  with  great  subtlety,  the  angles 

being  filled  with  miniature  towers  and  spires,  and  the  vertical 

lines  of  these  re-echoed  and  carried  up  by  gables  set  against 

the  faces  of  the  sloping  octagonal  spire  above.     Although  the 

spire  changed  in  detail,  and  in  later  works  we  find  extreme 

delicacy   and   openwork 

treatment,  the  ideal  and  the 

general  tendency  remained 

the  same.     In  addition  to 

the  western  towers  and 

spires,  tower -like  lanterns 

were  often  placed  over  the 

crossing,  though  this  detail 

is  much  more  characteristic 

of  England  than  of  France. 

In  France  the  crossing  was 

more  often  marked  by   a 

slender  fleche  of  stone,  or  of 

wood  and  lead. 

Capitals  and  their  decora- 
tion. The  development  of 
other  details  in  the  building 
harmonized  with  that  of 
those  which  we  have  studied. 
New  loads  demanded  new 

capitals,  and  forms  were  developed,  based  essentially  on  Byzan- 
tine types,  but  none  the  less  original.  The  capital  was  given 
greater  height,  greater  slenderness  below,  and  greater  breadth 
above.  It  was  decorated  with  foliate  and  animal  sculpture, 
more  generally  the  former,  carefully  studied  from  nature.  In 
the  early  work,  unfolding,  bud-like  forms  were  preferred,  and  we 
find  the  young  water-cress  or  unfolding  fern  carrying  the  four 
angles  of  the  abacus.  As  the  style  progressed  the  sculpture 
became  more  naturalistic  and  less  expressive  functionally. 
Still  later  the  forms  became  brittle,  suggestive  of  the  withered 
leaf,  but  at  all  times  the  carving  was  crisp  and  delicate. 
Esthetically  the  foliate  work  gave  infinite  life  and  vitality  to 


FIG.    153 — SENLIS.      THE   SPIRE 


298        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

a  style  which  might  otherwise  have  been  but  logically 
satisfactory. 

The  use  of  sculpture.  The  didactic  as  well  as  the  esthetic 
value  of  sculpture  was  fully  recognized  and,  as  a  result,  carving 
was  profuse  all  over  the  building.  It  is  not  mere  rhetoric 
to  say  that  the  Gothic  cathedral  summed  up  all  the  learning, 
all  the  science,  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  decorative  purpose 
of  the  sculpture  was,  however,  never  lost.  With  all  the 
freedom  and  naturalism  of  single  details  the  whole,  whether 
on  porch,  gallery,  or  roof,  was  designed  with  strict  reference 
to  esthetic  effect.  At  times  all  didactic  purpose  appears  to 
have  been  lost,  and  we  find  sculptures,  like  the  grotesques  and 
gargoyles,  which  are  the  result  of  a  free  play  of  the  carver's 
fancy  and  joy  of  creation.  These  works  give  the  impression 
of  a  building  always  peopled.  On  account  of  them  the  Gothic 
cathedral  is  never  empty,  never  dead. 

Moldings.  As  one  would  expect,  such  a  completely  new 
system  of  architecture  exhibited  a  completely  new  system  of 
moldings.  Since  he  was  not  bound  by  precedent,  the 
architect  studied  and  conventionalized  nature,  and  created 
moldings  which  gave  the  most  masterly  effects  of  light  and 
shade.  The  general  system  was  that  of  the  inclosure  of  convex 
curves  within  concave  ones,  and  the  resultant  profiles  remind 
one  of  vegetable  forms  such  as  fruits  in  a  pod,  or  buds  in  a 
calix.  Sculpture  and  molding  appeared,  of  course,  on  the 
exterior  as  well  as  on  the  interior.  Parapets  were  evolved,  to 
serve  the  crowning  function  of  the  classic  cornice,  and  pinnacles 
were  applied  to  many  parts  of  the  building,  especially  the 
buttress  piers.  The  latter  were  decorated  with  bud-like  forms 
called  crockets,  and  were  topped  with  ornate  finials. 

Polychromy  and  stained  glass.  Polychromy  played  a  much 
more  important  part  than  is  generally  recognized  in  Gothic 
architecture.  Of  course,  the  most  gorgeous  polychromatic 
effects  were  obtained  by  a  complete  infilling  of  window  space 
with  rich  stained  glass.  An  infinity  of  subjects  was  repre- 
sented, but  representation  was  always  subordinated  to  pure 
design.  Some  of  the  most  masterly  of  the  world's  designs  in 
color  may  still  be  seen  in  the  interior  of  Chartres.  The  color, 
sometimes  flaming,  sometimes  hushed,  played  vividly  upon  the 
religious  imagination.  How  much  is  lost  with  the  destruction 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  299 

of  stained  glass  may  be  gauged  by  comparing  the  interior  of 
Chartres,  where  the  glass  is  largely  preserved,  with  that  of 
Amiens.  Although  the  latter  is  probably  the  more  perfect 
building  architecturally,  its  effect,  as  the  cold  light  streams  in 
from  the  white  glass  of  the  windows,  is  vastly  less  impressive 
than  that  of  Chartres.  The  rich  polychromy  of  the  stained 
glass  was  fortified  by  painting  the  stone  members  of  the 
interior.  Almost  all  traces  of  the  original  painting  of  medieval 
interiors  is  lost,  and  modern  attempts  to  restore  it,  as  in  the 
Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris,  have  generally  been  gaudy  and 
displeasing. 

Fourteenth  century  Gothic  -in  France.  By  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  with  the  raising  of  such  structures  as 
Amiens  an,d  Reims  (Figs.  141,  142,  and  154),  Gothic  architect- 
ure in  France  attained  a  full  development.  The  architecture 
of  the  succeeding  century  may  be  sketched  summarily.  The 
fourteenth  century  in  France  was  a  period  of  refinement  rather 
than  of  change.  Vaults  and  ribs  became  lighter,  foliate 
sculpture  unfolded  and  further  accented  the  vertical  tendency, 
and  tracery  became  so  frail  that  long  bars  were  made  mono- 
lithic for  safety's  sake.  In  some  churches,  as  at  Chartres 
(Fig.  155),  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin  at  the  end  of  the 
chevet  took  on  especial  importance  and  became  almost 
a  separate  little  church.  In  general,  however,  the  plan 
of  the  buildings  remained  the  same,  and  no  decided  change 
occurred  until  the  fifteenth  century.  Before  we  examine 
the  later  art,  we  must  take  up  the  Gothic  architecture  of 
England. 

English  Gothic.  General  characteristics.  Gothic  architect- 
ure in  England  may  be  subdivided  into  three  styles,  corre- 
sponding to  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
Before  we  examine  individually  any  one  of  these,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  well  to  note  certain  main  characteristics  of 
the  art  as  a  whole.  These  will  show  how  widely  divergent, 
even  at  an  early  period,  English  Gothic  was  from  French. 
First  and  foremost  one  must  notice  a  difference  in  structural 
principle.  Organic  Gothic,  in  the  sense  that  we  have  studied 
it  in  France,  was  not  developed  in  England.  There  is,  for 
example,  hardly  a  fully  developed  flying  buttress  system  on 
the  island.  To  the  end  the  Englishmen  depended  on  Roman- 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


301 


esque  sturdiness  for  structural  safety,  and  this  inevitably  gave 
a  different  expression  to  the  building. 

The  plan.  In  the  plan  the  English  building  was  long,  or 
rather  appears  to  be  long  on  account  of  its  narrowness  (Fig. 
157).  Though  Salisbury  and  Amiens  are  approximately  the 
same  in  length,  the  former  appears  much  longer.  The  English 
building  was  given  boldly  projecting  transepts,  and  the 
transepts  were  generally  doubled,  the  shorter  east  of  the 
longer,  giving  the  church  the  archiepiscopal-cross  form  which 


FIG.    155 CHARTRES.       CATHEDRAL.       PLAN 


we  have  met  in  Burgundian  Romanesque.  The  east  end  of 
the  English  church  was  almost  invariably  square,  and  this, 
like  the  archiepiscopal  cross,  seems  surely  to  represent  a 
Cistercian  influence.  The  same  phenomenon  may  be  observed 
earlier  in  English  Romanesque,  as  at  Durham.  In  elevation 
the  English  building  was  much  lower  than  the  French  (Fig. 
140),  though  the  same  narrowness  which  increased  the  im- 
pression of  length  increased  the  impression  of  height.  The 
English  works  abounded  in  towers,  and  a  very  striking  feature 
was  early  made  of  a  great  square  stone  lantern  above  the 
crossing. 

The  vaulting  system.  Facades.  The  English  vaulting  system, 
except  in  a  few  early  instances,  was  more  complicated,  if  less  or- 
ganic, than  the  French.  Ribs  soon  came  to  be  used  even  more 
for  decorative  than  for  structural  purposes  and  applied  from 
the  point  of  view  of  pure  design.  Facades  became  decorative 


302        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

screens,  hiding  rather  than  revealing  the  arrangement  behind 
them.  Though  sometimes  extremely  effective,  these  facades 
suffered  as  entrances,  and  portals  shrank  to  comparatively 
tiny  openings,  mere  possibilities  of  ingress  rather  than  portals. 
Although  occasionally  the  facades  were  adorned  with  sculpt- 
ures, as  at  Wells,  in  general  sculpture  played  a  far  less 


FIG.    156 — SALISBURY.      THE   CATHEDRAL,    SEEN    FROM   THE    NORTHEAST 

important  part  in  England  than  in  France.  Even  in  the 
interiors  sculpture  was  scant,  and  the  result  was  a  certain 
bareness  and  less  vitality  than  in  French  work. 

The  site.  To  make  up  for  this  the  English  building  was,  on 
account  of  its  complicated  plan,  extremely  picturesque,  and 
was  almost  invariably  placed  on  a  fine  site,  which  was  cared 
for  at  the  time  the  building  was  erected  and  has  been  cared  for 
ever  since.  Whether  or  not  this  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  so  many  of  the  English  churches  were  of  monastic 
foundation  is  unimportant.  To  any  one  who  has  seen  the  finest 
buildings  of  France  masked  by  the  unsightly  structures  which 
are  permitted  to  crowd  about  them,  the  beautiful  placing  of 
the  English  buildings  will  come  as  a  great  relief. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  303 

The  Early  English  style.  French  influence.  We  may  now 
take  up  the  various  styles  of  English  Gothic.  As  we  have 
seen,  in  the  beginning  French  importation  plays  an  important 
part,  though  at  times  it  is,  so  to  speak,  once  removed.  Thus 
even  the  dependence  of  English  Gothic  on  English  Romanesque 
is  ultimately  a  dependence  on  Norman  Romanesque.  In 
other  cases,  as  at  Canterbury,  the  influence  is  much  more 


FIG.    157 — SALISBURY.       INTERIOR   OF   THE   CATHEDRAL,   LOOKING   TOWARD 
THE   EAST   END 

concrete.  Here  William  of  Sens,  a  Frenchman  as  his  name 
reveals,  was  called  to  build  the  church,  and  on  his  death  an 
Englishman,  taught  by  him,  took  up  the  work.  The  building 
of  Lincoln  was  ordered  by  Bishop  Hugh,  a  Frenchman,  and  the 
architect  was  Geoffrey  de  Noyers,  whose  name  proves  his 
extraction,  even  though  he  may  have  been  born  in  England. 
In  short  we  may  say  that  in  origin  the  Early  English  style  is 
a  combination  of  French  and  Anglo-Norman  influences. 

Character  of  Early  English  architecture.  The  most  striking 
characteristic  of  the  style  is  its  simplicity.  Sculpture  is 
scant,  decoration  restrained,  and  the  effect  of  the  building 
depends  on  fine  proportion  and  severe  dignity.  The  openings 


3o4        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

are  generally  high  and  narrow,  or  lancet-shaped,  and  are  so 
characteristic  that  the  style  is  frequently  called  the  Lancet 
style.  The  construction  is  very  sturdy.  Frequently  shafts 
were  not  brought  down  even  to  the  main  impost.  The 
massiveness  of  the  round  piers  was  frequently  disguised,  how- 
ever, by  clusters  of  shafts,  engaged  or  free,  about  them. 

These  shafts  were  often 
made  of  the  dark  Purbeck 
marble  which  was  the  de- 
light of  the  English  builder. 
The  Early  English  style 
may  be  studied  in  the  more 
important  parts  of  Canter- 
bury, Lincoln,  and  Wells, 
and  in  other  monuments. 
Salisbury,  however,  which 
was  begun  in  1220,  the  year 
of  the  foundation  of  Amiens, 
and  was  practically  finished 
by  1258,  is  the  most  homo- 
geneous building  in  the  style 
(Figs.  138, 140, 156,  and  157). 
The  Decorated  style.  By 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  severity  of  the 
Early  English  style  was 
abandoned  and  the  Dec- 
orated style,  sometimes  called  the  Geometric,  and,  in  its 
later  aspect,  the  Curvilinear,  took  its  place.  It  was  marked 
by  a  profusion  of  ornament.  Ribs  were  multiplied,  and 
liernes  and  tiercerons,  or  intermediate  ribs,  were  run  from  rib 
to  rib,  or  from  rib  to  impost.  Arches  received  many  orders, 
and  were  enriched  with  complicated  moldings.  Above  all, 
openings  were  enlarged  and  fitted  with  elaborate  tracery  design. 
This  tracery,  profuse  as  it  was,  at  first  followed  severe  geo- 
metric patterns,  but  later  it  grew  more  riotous,  and  eccentric 
curves  were  introduced.  In  time  the  wavy-lined  tracery 
became  the  rule,  and  interlaced  arcades  with  ogee  curves 
became  common.  The  general  effect  was  richer  and  less 
orderly  than  that  of  the  Early  English  style.  There  are  no 


FIG.  158 — LINCOLN.      THE  CATHEDRAL 
THE   ANGEL    CHOIR 


305 

homogeneous  Decorated  cathedrals,  but  large  portions  of 
buildings,  like  the  famous  angel  choir  of  Lincoln  (Fig.  158), 
the  nave  of  Lincoln,  and  the  choir  (Fig.  159)  and  west  front 
of  York  Minster,  exhibit  the  style. 

The  Perpendicular  style.  Despite  its  richness  the  Decorated 
style  was  destined  to  be  driven  out  in  the  fifteenth  century  by 
the  Perpendicular,  the  last,  and  in  some 
respects  the  most  original,  of  the  English 
styles.  In  this  style  unsparing  emphasis 
was  laid  on  the  vertical  line.  Ribs  were 
brought  direct  to  the  pavement.  'Open- 
ings were  tremendously  enlarged,  and 
filled  with  tracery  composed  of  vertical 
bars,  which  ran  from  top  to  bottom, 
joined  at  intervals  by  shorter  horizontal 
members.  The  effect  was  to  emphasize 
not  only  the  perpendicular  but  the  rect- 
angle. Rectangular  panelling  became 
general,  and  walls  and  vault  surfaces 
were  given  an  all-over  pattern  of  similar 
design. 

Vaults  and  supports.  Vaults  received 
the  most  complicated  treatment  in  the 
history  of  Gothic.  Liernes  and  tiercerons 
were  multiplied  until  it  became  almost 
impossible  to  distinguish  the  functional 
ribs  from  the  decorative.  Indeed  there 
scarcely  were  functional  ribs,  for  the 
vaults  were  practically  homogeneous, 
with  an  applique  of  decorative  ribs.  At 
the  same  time  the  "fan  vault"  (Fig.  161) 
was  developed — the  most  famous  vault 
form  of  the  style.  The  name  is  both 
descriptive  and  misleading.  In  a  fan 
vault  the  ribs  radiate  fanwise  from  the  main  impost.  The 
vaulting  conoid  is,  however,  nearly  circular,  so  the  ribs 
branch  to  follow  roughly  the  lines  of  an  inverted  concave 
cone.  The  effect  from  below  is  very  like  that  of  the  branch- 
ing foliage  of  a  tree,  and  the  form  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful in  English  Gothic.  With  the  complication  of  the  ribs 


•IV 


FIG.    159 — YORK.      THE 
SYSTEM   OF   THE  CHOIR 


3o6        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

came  further  ramifications.  Keystones,  for  example,  were 
designed  as  large  pendent  stones,  safe,  since  monolithic. 
Openwork,  too,  in  the  members  of  vault  and  support,  be- 
came common. 

Arches.  Arches  were  given  new  forms.  They  were  flattened, 
struck  from  several  centers  and  sometimes  came  to  a  flattened 

point  like  a  depressed  ogee. 
The  flattened,  so-called 
"Tudor"  arch  became  a 
great  favorite  at  a  later 
date.  At  the  same  time 
the  square  east  ends  were 
finished  with  tremendous 
windows,  filled  with  Perpen- 
dicular tracery. 

Examples.  Examples  of 
the  Perpendicular  style  are 
more  numerous  than  those 
of  the  Decorated.  One  of 
the  best  is  Henry  VI I. 's 
chapel,  Westminster  (Fig. 
1 60),  and  an  equally  fine 
and  consistent  specimen  is 
Saint  George's  chapel, 
Windsor.  Perhaps  the  fin- 
est of  all  is  Gloucester, 
where  transept,  choir,  and  t 
cloisters  (Fig.  161)  are  in 
the  Perpendicular 
style.  The  last  named 

offer  some  of  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  the  fan  vault  in 
England. 

Flamboyant  Gothic.  The  style  in  France.  Turning  to  France 
we  may  now  study  the  Flamboyant  style.  No  new  construc- 
tive principle  is  here  involved,  the  style  being  one  merely  of 
a  new  arbitrary  decorative  system,  the  basis  of  which  is  an 
opposition  of  curve  to  counter-curve.  All  the  germs  of  French 
Flamboyant  are  to  be  found  in  English  Curvilinear.  French, 
vaults  became  complicated.  Liernes  and  tiercerons  were  intro- 
duced, although  the  tendency  was  to  join  rib  to  rib,  rather  than--/ 


FIG.    1 6O — LONDON.       WESTMINSTER 
ABBEY.        HENRY    VII. 's   CHAPEL 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


307 


rib  to  impost.  Above  all,  the  lines  were  wavy  and  the  ogee  arch 
common.  The  pointed  arch,  especially  in  the  interlaced  arcade, 
had  an  alternate  concave  and  convex  profile.  Openwork, 
whether  in  porch  gable,  spire,  or  abutment,  became  common, 
and  extraordinary  lace-like  effects  were  obtained.  The 
expression  was  one  of  delicacy  rather  than  strength,  and  a 
certain  nervous  restlessness  is  added.  The  flattened  arch 


FIG.  l6l — GLOUCESTER.   THE  CATHEDRAL.   INTERIOR  OF  THE  CLOISTERS 


became  very  common.  Local  differences  broke  down,  and 
the  same  Flamboyant  style  was  applied  in  all  localities  of 
France.  It  was  a  unified  France  which  saw  the  elements  of 
the  style  and  accepted  them  from  England. 

Examples.  The  first  clearly  Flamboyant  building  in  France 
is  the  chapel  of  Saint  John  in  Amiens  cathedral,  built  from  1337 
to  1375.  Thence  the  style  spread  abroad,  good  examples 
being  the  cathedrals  of  Quimper,  Nantes,  and  Chambe'ry, 
Saint  Ouen  at  Rouen  (Fig.  162),  and  the  church  of  Saint 
Vulfram,  AbbeVille  (Fig.  163).  These  are  all  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  the  style  continued  vigorous  until  long  into  the 
sixteenth.  Saint  Maclou  at  Rouen  (Fig.  164),  one  of  the 
finest  of  French  Flamboyant  buildings,  was  not  completed  until 


3o8        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

1541,  and  the  Flamboyant  south  transept  of  Beauvais  dates 
from  1548.  The  dates  of  these  later  buildings  are  especially 
interesting,  since  they  coincide  with  what  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  Renaissance  in  France. 

German  Gothic.  Original  and  imitative 
qualities.  When  we  approach  the  sub- 
ject of  German  Gothic  we  find  that  dif- 
ferent conditions  produced  different  re- 
sults. The  Germans  accepted  Gothic 
with  reluctance.  They  already  had  a 
vigorous,  highly  original  style  in  their 
Romanesque,  which  expressed  their  na- 
tional genius.  The  Gothic  movement  in 
Germany  was,  therefore,  a  late  one,  and 
the  period  of  transition,  when  Gothic 
was  being  accepted,  was  long.  Ger- 
many generally  owed  her  Gothic  to 
France,  and  we  are  even  indebted  to  a 
German  for  the  phrase  "opus  franci- 
genum"  as  a  description  of  Gothic.  This 
does  not  mean,  however,  that  the  Ger- 
man style  does  not  show  originality,  and 
frequently  differ  widely  from  the  French. 
For  purposes  of  classification,  as  already 
suggested,  one  may  divide  the  German 
Gothic  buildings  into  two  classes,  original 
and  imitative,  according  to  the  degree 
of  originality  in  the  work. 

Early  monuments.     As  one  would  ex- 
pect, the  early  German  Gothic  buildings 
showed   a   high   degree    of   originality. 
They  represent  a  reminiscence  of  Ger- 
man Romanesque  with  a  free  applica- 
FIG.  162 — ROUEN.  SAINT  tion  of  French  Gothic  detail.     Such  a 
OUEN.    SYSTEM        cathedral    as   Bamberg   (Fig.    165),  for 
example,  shows  a  clear  compromise  be- 
tween two  architectural  styles,  the  Gothic  character  showing 
only  in  the  consistently  pointed  vaults  and  arches  and  in  the 
moldings.      Nor  is  Bamberg   an  isolated  example.      Many 
other  churches  of  approximately  the  same  date,  among  them 


ul  '   i    t   1 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


309 


the  cathedrals  of  Naumburg  and  Munster  (Fig.  166),  exhibit 
the  same  compromise  between  French  Gothic  and  German 
Romanesque,  though  they  differ  in  detail,  as  German  Roman- 
esque buildings  differ  one  from  another.  As  time  went  on 
the  tendency  to 
imitate  French 
forms  became 
more  marked. 

Imitative  works. 
By  far  the  best 
known  of  the  so- 
called  imitative 
monuments  are 
copies,  more  or 
less  free,  of  the 
churches  of  north- 
ern France.  What 
has  often  been 
called  the  first 
purely  Gothic 
church  of  Ger- 
many was  built 
between  1227  and 
1243,  at  Treves, 
in  fairly  faithful 
imitation  of  the 
church  of  Saint 
Yved  at  Braisne. 
The  minsters  of 
Strasburg  and 

Freiburg  (Figs.  167  and  168)  soon  followed  it,  the  latter 
largely  dependent  on  the  former,  but  both  harking  back  to 
the  abbey  of  Saint  Denis  as  a  prototype,  though  in  neither 
building  do  we  meet  mere  copyism.  Perhaps  the  most 
imitative  of  all  the  German  cathedrals  is  Cologne  (Fig.  138), 
reproducing  the  system  of  Amiens  with  great  fidelity  and 
possibly  even  begun  by  a  Frenchman.  This  cathedral  has, 
however,  more  homogeneity  than  Amiens,  and  diverges  from 
it  in  many  minor  details. 

The  Hallenkirchen.     Probably  the  least  imitative  and  most 


FIG.     163 — ABBEVILLE.      SAINT     VULFRAM. 
WEST    PORTALS 


3io        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

native  Gothic  churches  of  Germany  were  the  Hallenkirchen, 
or  hall  churches.  These  were  three-aisled  buildings,  with 
domical  vaults,  the  aisle  vaults  being  as  high  as  those  of  the 
nave,  and  the  building  thus  having  the  appearance  of  a  great 
hall.  It  is  probable  that  they  were  originally  inspired  by  the 
churches  of  much  the  same  sort  characteristic  of  southwestern 

France.  However  this  may 
be,  the  Hallenkirchen  were 
developed  in  Germany  and 
increased  in  popularity  from 
the  early  Gothic  through  the 
Flamboyant  period,  and  be- 
came the  most  character- 
istically German  of  all  the 
Gothic  types.  The  first 
frankly  Gothic  example 
seems  to  have  been  the 
church  of  Saint  Elizabeth  at 
Marburg  (Figs.  139,  169,  and 
170),  erected  between  1235 
and  1283.  Here,  as  though 
to  emphasize  the  native  Ger- 
man quality  of  the  type,  the 
plan  is  made  three  shelled, 
with  a  polygonal  apse  the 
breadth  of  the  aisleless  choir, 
and  transepts  of  the  same 
size  with  polygonal  ends. 

This  type  was  later  extensively  followed,  as  in  the  Wiesen- 
kirche  at  Soest,  and  the  church  of  Saint  George  at  Nordlingen 
(Fig.  170),  and  on  account  of  its  simplicity  it  found  particular 
favor  in  districts  where  brick  was  the  chief  building  material. 
Fourteenth  century  Gothic  in  Germany.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  Gothic  art,  so  reluctantly  accepted  in  Germany, 
expanded  prodigiously.  Fourteenth  century  German  Gothic 
did  not,  however,  show  great  originality.  The  period  was  one 
of  expansion  rather  than  progress.  As  in  France,  progress  was 
in  the  direction  of  lightness,  and  forms  at  times  became  almost 
emaciated.  Sculpture  aped  the  prevailing  French  mode, 
exaggerating  the  French  grimace,  and  foliate  carving  flung 


FIG.    164 — ROUEN.      SAINT    MACLOU. 
VIEW  OF  THE  WEST  FRONT  AND  SPIRE 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


off  all  restraint.  On  the  other  hand  the  plans  were  kept 
simple  and  the  Hallenkirche  was  a  great  favorite.  Among  the 
most  original  monuments  of  the  period  may  be  mentioned  the 
cathedral  of  Ulm,  built  in  1377.  As  types  of  the  fourteenth 
century  Hallenkirchen  we  may  mention  the  church  of  the 


01     »     5    *     S 

FIG.  165 — BAM  BERG.   CATHEDRAL.   PLAN  AND  SYSTEM 


Holy   Cross   at   Gmiind,    and   that   of   Saint   Lawrence   at 
Nurnberg. 

Fifteenth  century  Gothic  in  Germany.  The  fifteenth  century 
Gothic  of  Germany,  except  for  the  importation  of  some  Flam- 
boyant French  details,  developed  from  that  of  the  fourteenth. 
The  style  was  in  large  measure  independent,  and  was  able  to 
influence  even  Italy  and  France.  In  general  th«  art  was  a  culmi- 
nation of  the  lightness  aimed  at  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
Columns  were  simplified  to  the  point  of  nudity^ forms  thinned, 
but  combinations  of  members  became  extraordinarily  complex. 
Thus  without  direct  imitation  the  style  approached  the 
character  of  English  Perpendicular  Gothic,  Vaults,  for 
example,  were  often  merely  barrel  vaults  interpenetrated  at 


312 

right  angles  by  other  barrel  vaults  of  less  height,  and  the  inner 
surfaces  of  both  covered  with  a  network  of  decorative  ribs.  At 
the  same  time  a  decorative  system  of  lozenge-like  paneling 
was  developed  which  bears  the  closest  analogy  to  the  English 
Perpendicular  paneling.  The  Hallenkirche,  always  popular, 
now  received  its  greatest  development.  At  the  same  time 
the  technique  of  the  builders  and  carvers  became  very  skilful, 

and  they  were  generally 
regarded  in  other  coun- 
tries as  the  equals  if  not 
the  superiors  of  the 
French. 

The  fifteenth  century 
Hallenkirche.  As  ex- 
amples of  the  Hallenkirche 
in  the  fifteenth  century 
one  may  cite  the  five- 
aisled  Liebfrauenkirche  of 
Mulhausen,  the  cathedral 
1 1  of  Munich,  and  many 
others.  Even  where  the 
clerestory  is  preserved, 
however,  the  fifteenth 
century  building  appears 
scarcely  less  distinctively 
German,  and  one  would 
never  mistake  the  vaults 

FIG.  I66-MUNSTER.    CATHEDRAL.  SYSTEM    of   gaints    peter   and   paul 

at      Gorlitz      (1423-97) 

or  those  of  the  church  of  Saint  Mary  at   Halle  (1535-54), 
with  their  thinned  members  and  lozenge  decoration,  for  any-' 
thing  but  German. 

Spanish  Gothic  The  history  of  the  Gothic  in  Spain  is 
analogous  to  trut  of  the  style  in  other  countries  outside  of 
France.  There  occurred  the  same  importation  of  French 
detail,  the  sane  modification  of  the  art  according  to  local 
needs,  climate,  and  national  taste.  In  the  beginning  the 
importation  from  France  and  especially  from  Auvergne  and 
Languedoc  was  very  marked,  but  soon  inspiration  came  from 
all  over  France. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


313 


General  characteristics.  Many  special  characteristics,  how- 
ever, differentiated  the  Spanish  church  from  its  French  model, 
and  gave  it  originality.  Exigencies  of  climate  as  well  as  the 
abundance  of  classical  monuments  suggested  a  flattening  of 
roofs  and  an  accenting  of  the  horizontal.  Large  window  space 
was  not  needed  in  a  sunny  climate,  and  often  the  clerestory 
almost  disappeared.  The  triforium  was  frequently  suppressed, 
as  suggested  by  the  almost 
flat  aisle  roofs.  With  the 
accent  on  the  horizontal 
line  and  the  contraction  of 
openings,  came  inevitably 
broad  wall  surfaces,  which 
increased  the  classic  feeling 
of  the  edifice.  There  is  a 
diminishing  of  Gothic  rest- 
lessness and  an  increase  of 
classic  repose  in  the  Spanish 
work.  Decoration,  on  the 
other  hand,  took  on  a  char- 
acteristically  Spanish 
sparkle.  Undercutting  was 
deep,  edges  crisp,  contrast 
strong,  and  broad  contrasts 
arranged  between  profusely 
decorated  and  wholly  bare 
surfaces.  Carving  became 
especially  exuberant  during 
the  Flamboyant  period,  and 

a  steadily  increasing  Saracenic  influence  tended  to  exaggerate 
the  already  exotic  quality  of  the  forms. 

The  interior.  The  interior  of  the  Spanish  church  was 
generally  dark  and  roomy.  Piers  were  widely  spaced  and 
massy,  vaults  lower  than  in  France.  Peculiarities  of  the 
Spanish  buildings  were  the  capilla  mayor  and  the  coro.  The 
former  was  the  apsidal  chapel,  bounded  by: the  ambulatory, 
almost  completely  screened  from  the  rest  of  the  church.  The 
latter  was  an  equally  screened  choir,  arranged  west  of  the 
crossing.  These  features  tended  to  break  up  »the.  interior  and 
render  its  size  more  difficult  to  appreciate  (Fi^.^'Vii). 


FIG.    167 — FREIBURG.        THE  MINSTER, 
SEEN   FROM  THE   SOUTHEAST 


3i4        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Twelfth  cvntury  Spanish  Gothic.  As  one  might  expect,  the 
twelfth  century  Spanish  buildings  are  somewhat  chaotic.  In 
Catalonia,  for  example,  the  abbeys  of  Poblet  and  Santa  Creus 
were  founded  by  monks  from  near  Narbonne,  and  show  the 
influence  of  the  architecture  of  Langue- 
doc.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Cistercian 
churches  of  Alcobaza  (Portugal)  and 
Las  Huelgas,  near  Burgos,  display  the 
strongly  domical  vaults  and  nave  and 
aisles  of  equal  height  which  south- 
western France  gave  alike  to  them  and 
to  Germany. 

Thirteenth  century  Spanish  Gothic. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  inspiration 
came  from  northern  France,  and  Span- 
ish architecture,  without  losing  its  own 
identity,  rivaled  French.  The  best 
known  and  finest  works  of  the  period 
are  the  cathedrals  of  Burgos,  Toledo 
(Fig.  171),  and  Leon.  The  inspiration 
for  the  first  two  came  from  Bourges; 
that  of  the  last  from  buildings  farther 
north  in  the  lie  de  France  and  Cham- 
pagne. Burgos  and  Toledo  resemble 
each  other  closely.  The  former  was 
founded  in  1226,  the  latter  somewhat 
later,  and  the  same  architects  may 
well  have  worked  upon  both.  Leon 
cathedral  is  more  eclectic  than  Burgos 
or  Toledo,  though  it  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  Chartres  more  than  that  of 
any  other  single  French  building.  It 
does  not  suggest  any  dry  eclecticism, 
however,  but  rather  has  the  spon- 
taneity of  its  great  French  prototypes, 

and    seems   to    spring,  as  they  do,   from  fine  models  only 
slightly  earlier  in  date. 

Fourteenth  century  Spanish  Gothic.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  Gothic  of  Spain  there  appeared  the  same  tendencies 
as  in  France,  although  refinement  never  went  so  far  in  the 


FIG.     168 — F  R  E  I  B  U  R  G 
THE   MINSTERS   SYSTEM 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


former  country  as  in  the  latter.  The  influence  of  northern 
France  weakened  somewhat,  and  we  find  such  works  as  the 
cathedral  of  Gerona,  begun  in  1316,  inspired  once  more  by  the 
architecture  of  southern  France. 

Fifteenth  century  Spanish  Gothic.  The  prosperity  of  Spain 
during  the  fifteenth  century  favored  architectural  develop- 
ment. As  in  Ger- 
many,  we  feel 
much  originality 
in  the  later  work. 
This  is  attained  by 
an  emphasis  on 
the  qualities  which 
we  have  called 
characteristically 
Spanish.  Flat 
roofs  became  more 
common,  carving 
more  sparkling, 
buildings  more 
spacious.  The 
octagonal  lantern 
came  to  be  a  very 
prominent  feature, 
as  at  Barcelona 
and  Valencia. 
The  openwork 
detail  of  French 
Flamboyant  was 
specially  suited  to 
Spanish  taste,  and 

was  very  characteristic  of  late  Spanish  Gothic.  The  best 
known  examples  are  the  openwork  spires  of  Burgos,  begun  in 
1442,  imitated  not  from  a  French  work  but  a  German  one,  the 
cathedral  of  Cologne.  The  most  ambitious  church  of  fifteenth 
century  Spain,  the  cathedral  of  Seville  (Figs.  139, 140,  and  172), 
was  begun  in  1401.  Here  the  warm  climate  of  Andalusia  and 
the  Moorish  influence  of  a  country  long  under  Moslem  domina- 
tion exaggerated  the  typically  Spanish  characteristics  of  the 
architecture.  Roofs  are  never  so  flat,  -piers  never  so  widely 


FIG.    169 — MARBURG.      SAINT  ELIZABETH.      THE 
INTERIOR,  LOOKING  TOWARD   THE   APSE 


316        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

spaced,  interiors  never  so  gloomy,  as  at  Seville.  The  detail 
has  a  specially  Moorish  eccentricity.  Indeed  the  Spaniards 
combined  Moorish  and  Christian  detail  so  skilfully  that 
buildings  like  the  famous  Sevillan  Giralda  (Fig.  172)  present 


I  i.1  i    ?  .  r — rut 


Marburg,  Saint  Elizabeth  Nordlingen,  Saint  George 

FIG.    I7O — SYSTEMS   OF   HALLENKIRCHEN 

a  harmonious  whole  when  actually  constructed  in  several 
different  and  seemingly  antagonistic  periods. 

Origin  of  the  Gothic  style  in  Italy.  In  no  country  were  the 
fundamentals  of  the  Gothic  structural  systems  as  completely 
disregarded  as  in  Italy,  nevertheless  the  style  attained  there 
a  strong  position  and  produced  monuments  of  great  charm. 
It  was,  however,  purely  adventitious.  Italy  was  the  home 
of  classical  Roman  architecture.  It  received  Romanesque 
readily,  but  gave  it  so  strong  a  flavor  of  classic  art  that  the 
style,  as  we  have  seen,  has  often  been  called  that  of  the  proto- 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


Renaissance.     Italy    had     always     been     prone    to    classic 

revivals,  and  in  the  Romanesque  period  showed  signs  of  being 

ready  for  the  greatest  of  them  all — the  Renaissance — when 

the  peninsula  was  overwhelmed  by  the  wave  of  Gothic  fashion, 

and  for  two  centuries  the  pointed  style  was   supreme.      It 

was,  however,  an  imported, 

foreign  fashion,  just  as 

fashion  in  dress  at  the  same 

time  was   imported  from 

Paris.     It  arrived  in  almost 

complete   purity,    at   the 

hands     principally    of     the 

Cistercians,  who  settled   at 

Fossano va  in  Latium  (1187), 

and  thence  spread  to  Casa- 

mari  near  Rome  (1217),  San 

Galgano  in  Tuscany  (soon 

after  1217),  and  other  sites. 

These  monks  built  Cistercian 

Gothic  churches  of  an  early 

but  monumental   sort,  and 

roused  the  Italian  taste  for 

the  pointed  style,  but  Italian 

taste  promptly  modified  the 

style  imported. 

General  character  of  Italian 
Gothic.  The  Italian  archi- 
tects had  little  sense  of 
logical  structure,  and  thus 
produced  buildings  which 
included  meager  buttress 
systems,  tied  vaults,  and 

lacked  all  that  the  French  considered  most  important 
in  the  Gothic  style.  Along  with  this  lack  of  structural 
sense  went  a  disguised  but  recognizable  classical  feeling. 
Classical  detail  gave  way,  but  classical  arrangements  and 
emphasis  were  retained.  The  horizontal  line,  as  in  Spain, 
was  emphasized.  Intercolumniations  were  broadened,  with 
a  consequent  loss  of  scale.  Wall  spaces  were  broad,  openings 
small,  and  interiors  gave  an  impression  of  roominess  which 


FIG.  171  — TOLEDO.  CATHEDRAL. 
VIEW  OF  THE  INTERIOR,  LOOKING 
TOWARD  THE  APSE 


3i8        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

frequently  went  over  into  bareness.  Climate,  as  well  as 
classical  reminiscence,  played  a  large  rdle  in  these  changes. 
Since  openings  were  small  and  wall  spaces  broad,  stained  glass 
was  neglected.  Its  place  was  taken  by  mosaic,  and  especially 
by  fresco,  or  painting  in  water  color  on  wet  plaster,  which 
began  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  mosaic.  The  timber  roof  was 


FIG.    172 — SEVILLE. 


THE   CATHEDRAL    AND    GIRALDA   TOWER,    SEEN    FROM 
THE   SOUTHWEST 


often  substituted  for  the  vault.  Facades  became  gorgeous 
screens,  richly  decorated  in  carved  marble  and  glass  mosaic, 
behind  which  the  church  often  seemed  vainly  to  attempt  to 
conceal  itself.  The  Italian  Gothic  style  varied  geographically, 
being  simpler  in  the  north,  and  emphasizing  polychromy  in 
central  Italy.  It  also  varied  chronologically.  We  find  very 
simple  buildings  in  the  early  Cistercian  period,  and  very 
ramified  ones  when  Flamboyant  Gothic  came  into  vogue. 

Early  Gothic  architecture  in  Italy.  Perhaps  the  best  example 
of  the  early  Cistercian  building  in  Italy  is  the  church  of  San 
Martino,  near  Viterbo,  built  in  the  mid-thirteenth  century. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


About  the  same  time  the  church  of  Saint  Francis  was  built 
at  Assisi  (Fig.  173),  and  the  Italian  modification  of  French 
structure  began.  In  proportion  and  general  external  effect 
this  building  might  be  Romanesque.  In  the  second  half  of 
the  century  many  Gothic  buildings  were  raised,  the  most 
interesting  of  which  is  the  cathedral  of  Siena.  Here  one  sees 


FIG.    173 — ASSISI.      SAN   FRANCESCO.      PLAN 


a  good  example  of  the  Italian  screen-like  fagade,  decorated  in 
carved  marble  and  polychromy,  and  the  striped  marble  interior 
characteristic  of  Tuscan  architecture.  Many  minor  churches 
were  constructed  in  imitation  of  the  cathedral  buildings.  In 
the  north  an  architecture  with  more  organic  feeling  was 
developed  at  Bologna,  where  the  church  of  Saint  Francis 
(1236-40)  shows  a  real  buttress  system.  In  the  south 
Cistercian  ideas  were  mingling  with  architectural  ideas  from 
the  Latin  Orient,  and,  as  always  in  southern  Italy,  the  result 
was  an  interesting  architectural  hybrid. 

Fourteenth  century  Italian  Gothic.  Fourteenth  century 
Gothic  in  Italy,  as  elsewhere,  developed  chiefly  from  the  local 
architecture  of  the  preceding  century.  In  Florence  we  find 
the  cathedral  (1296-1367)  exaggerating  the  Italian  trend 
toward  wide  intercolumniations,  bare  interiors,  and  the 


320        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


Tuscan  violent  polychromy  applied  to  the  fagade  (Figs. 
138,  140,  174,  and  189).  The  triforium  was  omitted,  the 
clerestory  reduced,  and  the  openings  greatly  diminished  in 
size.  The  plan  was  given  a  trefoil  shape  which  reveals  Ger- 
manic influence  (compare  Figs,  in  and  138).  The  free 
standing  clock  tower,  Giotto's  "Lily  Campanile,"  is  one  of 

the  most  graceful 
examples  of  the 
Italian  polychro- 
matic pointed 
style.  In  Umbria 
the  cathedral  of 
Orvieto  (Fig. 
175),  dating  from 
the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  and 
the  beginning  of 
the  fourteenth 
century,  shows  an 
imitation  of  Siena. 
The  wooden  roof 
was  frankly  used 
here,  however, 
and  the  contrast 
of  interior  stripes 
is  less  violent 
than  in  Srena. 
The  body  of  the 
church  is  unob- 
trusive, the  facade 
one  of  the  most 
gorgeous  and 

least  spoiled  by  modern  restoration.  The  combination  of 
the  two  is  marred  by  inevitable  incongruity.  In  the  north 
important  Gothic  work  was  done  in  Venice,  in  the  church  of 
Saints  John  and  Paul,  and  in  other  towns.  At  the  very  end  of 
the  century  the  graceful  Carthusian  abbey  of  Pavia  was  begun, 
with  its  triconch  ending,  lanterns,  and  exterior  galleries,  which 
reveal  the  influence  of  Germany  once  more. 

Fifteenth  century  Italian  Gothic.     This  influence  becomes 


FIG.     174 — FLORENCE.       THE    CATHEDRAL.       VIEW 
OF    THE    INTERIOR,    LOOKING    TOWARD    THE    APSE 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


321 


most  important  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Important  secular 
architecture  in  Flamboyant  Italy  is  seen  in  many  buildings, 
but  the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  period  is  best  summed 
up  in  the  cathedral  of  Milan  (Fig.  176).  In  this  work  Italian, 
French,  and  German  influences  mingle.  The  Italian  lofty 
ground  story  and  wide  intercolumniation  were  retained. 
The  triforium  disappeared  and  the  clerestory  was  reduced. 
Windows  were  kept  small  and  tie-rods  were  used  to  hold  in 
the  vaults.  The  workman- 
ship is  German,  the  Flam- 
boyant detail  French,  modi- 
fied by  Germans.  On  the 
exterior  the  vertical  line  was 
unsparingly  emphasized,  as 
in  English  Perpendicular, 
though  the  detail  is  Ger- 
man in  character.  Pitched 
roofs  were  abandoned  in 
favor  of  flat  ones,  but  the 
consequent  horizontal  lines 
were  disguised  by  a  multi- 
tude of  pinnacles.  The 
material  was  fine  marble 
throughout,  and  the  carv- 
ing was  so  delicate  and 
profuse  in  figure  work,  pin- 
nacle, and  detail  that  a  very 
lace-like  effect  was  obtained. 

Long  before  the  completion  of  Milan  cathedral  the  Renais- 
sance was  in  full  sway  in  Florence,  and  it  is  to  the  credit  of 
the  Milanese  that  they  finished  a  structure  so  harmoniously 
at  so  late  a  date. 

Gothic  architecture  of  the  Latin  Orient  and  elsewhere.  There 
are  many  subdivisions  of  the  Gothic  style  which  we  have  had 
time  merely  to  mention  in  connection  with  our  classification, 
and  the  discussion  of  which  we  shall  have  to  omit.  It  will 
be  well,  however,  at  least  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Gothic  architecture  of  real  interest  was  produced  in  Austria, 
Scandinavia,  Switzerland,  and  elsewhere.  The  regret  is 
especially  keen  that  we  have  thus  summarily  to  dismiss  the 


FIG.  175 — ORVIETO.   THE  CATHEDRAL 
FRONT,  SEEN  FROM  THE  SOUTHWEST 


322        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Gothic  architecture  of  the  Latin  Orient.  The  crusaders 
carried  their  builders  with  them,  set  up  Western  civilization 
in  the  nearer  East,  and  the  result  was  a  series  of  imposing 
Gothic  monuments,  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  in  Palestine  and 
Syria  and  in  the  Mediterranean  islands.  Even  when  the  tide 
of  conquest  turned  and  the  Occidental  invaders  were  being 


FIG.    176 — MILAN.      EXTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL 

driven  out,  they  carried  on  their  building  operations,  as  at 
Gaza,  until  the  last  days  of  their  occupation.  The  turning 
of  this  tide  meant,  however,  that  Gothic  buildings  were  to  be 
rare  in  Palestine  and  on  the  mainland,  and  frequent  and  more 
complete  on  the  islands  where  the  Occidentals  held  longer 
sway. 

Secular  architecture.  As  always  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ecclesi- 
astical architecture  is  more  important  than  secular  in  the 
Gothic  period,  but  this  very  fact  has  caused  writers  to  over- 
emphasize medieval  ecclesiatical  art  at  the  expense  of  secular. 
At  times  the  secular  monuments  rival  the  ecclesiastical  in 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  323 

importance.  In  every  period,  of  course,  the  character  of  the 
detail  of  the  secular  buildings  corresponded  to  that  of  the 
ecclesiastical  buildings.  Quite  as  obviously  the  progression 
from  early  to  late  date  was  one  from  comparative  simplicity 
to  greater  complication.  Different  sorts  of  secular  works 
received  greater  emphasis  according  to  the  period.  In  the 
Romanesque  and  early  Gothic  periods  interest  centers  almost 
entirely  on  buildings,  public  or  private,  of  a  military  character. 
In  the  later  periods,  especially  in  the  latest  Flamboyant,  when 
civic  order  was  the  rule  and  the  individual  felt  himself  secure, 
lay  monuments  largely  lost  their  military  character, .  and  one 
finds  the  greatest  development  of  the  medieval  town  and 
guild  hall,  and  the  slightly  fortified  palace  of  the  petty  noble 
or  merchant  prince.  The  powerful  nobles  continued  to  build 
well-nigh  impregnable  castles  until  the  centralization  of  power 
in  the  king  forbade  such  monuments.  We  shall  be  able  to 
give  only  the  main  characteristics  of  each  type  of  secular 
monument,  with  the  mention  of  a  few  distinctive  examples, 
and  point  out  roughly  the  periods  in  which  each  type  attained 
its  greatest  importance. 

The  fortified  town.  The  most  imposing  secular  monuments, 
and  of  course  among  the  earliest,  are  the  fortified  towns.  The 
fortifications  of  a  town  were  so  composed  with  a  view  to  defense 
that  the  whole  became  a  unit,  and  it  is  not  fanciful  to  think  of 
the  town  as  a  single  monument.  The  principle  was  that  of 
surrounding  the  town  with  walls,  especially  strong  wherever 
the  town  was  unprotected  by  natural  defenses  such  as  cliffs 
or  rivers,  and  of  fortifying  angles  of  the  walls  by  salient  towers 
which  provided  for  enfilading  fire  on  besiegers  attacking  the 
curtain  wall  between  the  towers.  We  have  already  noted 
such  a  system  at  Avila,  in  the  Romanesque  period,  and 
variations  were  infinite.  Secondary  walls  of  defense  were 
built  outside  the  stronger  inner  walls.  Beyond  the  outer  walls 
moats  were  dug,  and  frequently  filled  with  water.  Access  to 
the  space  between  the  inner  and  outer  walls  was  provided  by 
drawbridges,  ramps,  and  triple  or  quadruple  gates,  covered 
with  stone  galleries,  pierced  with  openings,  through  which 
missiles  might  be  dropped  on  the  heads  of  invaders.  Once  an 
entrance  had  been  forced  within  the  outer  wall,  the  invader 
found  himself  in  a  cul-de-sac,  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  inner 


324        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

defenders  until  such  time  as  he  could  pierce  the  vastly  stronger 
inner  fortifications.  If  at  last  he  succeeded  in  winning  the 
inner  works  he  might  take  the  town,  but  had  yet  to  besiege  the 
citadel,  a  strong  fortress  placed  in  the  strongest  position  in 
the  town,  into  which  the  defending  military  retreated. 

Aigues-Mortes    and    Carcassonne.     Examples    of    fortified 
towns  are  to  be  found  in  most  European  countries,  though  the 


FIG.    177 — AIGUES-MORTES.      GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    CITY    AND    FORTI- 
FICATIONS 


finest  and  most  complete  are  in  France.  Here  two  examples 
far  surpass  the  others:  the  towns  of  Aigues-Mortes  and 
Carcassonne.  The  former  (Fig.  177),  founded  in  1246  by 
Saint  Louis,  presents  fortifications  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle 
roughly  600  by  150  yards,  with  twenty  well-preserved  towers, 
some  square  and  some  round.  The  moat  has  disappeared, 
but  the  machicolations  and  inner  galleries  for  defensive  fire 
may  still  be  studied,  as  well  as  the  defenses  of  the  ten  gates. 
The  monotonous  regularity  of  the  plan  shows  that  the  pictu- 
resque irregularity  of  most  medieval  secular  building  was  the 
result  of  the  architect's  adapting  himself  to  eccentricities  in 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


325 


site  or  warping  his  building  to  take  military  advantage  of  such 
eccentricities.  Where  the  site  is  a  plain,  architectural  irregu- 
larities disappear.  For  an  example  of  the  picturesque  and 
irregular  town  site,  the  Cite  of  Carcassonne  (Fig.  178)  will 
serve  our  need.  Here  the  fortifications  date  in  part  to  the 
Visigothic  period  in  the  fifth  century  and  were  frequently 
reconstructed  up  to  the  four- 
teenth century.  They  were 
skilfully  restored  in  the  mid- 
nineteenth  century  by 
Viollet-le-Duc.  The  site  was 
by  nature  lofty  and  inacces- 
sible, and  man  exaggerated 
this  inaccessibility  to  a  pict- 
uresque  degree.  No  one 
part  of  the  fortification  re- 
peats  any  other  part. 
Ramp,  curtain-wall,  turret, 
and  cul-de-sac  all  conform 
so  skilfully  to  the  natural 
advantages  of  the  terrain 
that  human  handiwork  ap- 
pears part  of  bed-rock,  or 
bed-rock  part  of  the  human 
structure.  The  outer  en- 
ceinte is  more  than  1600 
yards  in  circumference,  and 
the',  inner  more  than  1200. 
The  walls  are  fortified  by 

fifty  round  towers  and  the  whole  dominated  by  the  citadel. 
The  major  portion  of  the  work  dates  from  the  late  twelfth 
and  the  thirteenth  centuries.  The  whole  affords  the  most 
imposing,  and  in  some  respects  the  most  interesting,  secular 
monument  of  the  Gothic  period  which  has  come  down  to  us. 

The  castle.  The  chief  characteristics  of  the  castle  coincide 
with  those  of  the  fortified  town.  In  the  fully  developed 
examples  one  finds  the  outer  and  inner  walls,  the  towers 
fortifying  the  wall  angles,  the  moats,  machicolations,  corbelled 
galleries,  and  ramps,  such  as  the  towns  afforded.  Even  the 
town  citadel  is  reflected  in  the  donjon.  This,  however,  was 


FIG.    178 — CARCASSONNE.      LA   CITE. 
VIEW  OF   THE  FORTIFICATIONS 


326        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

placed  either  at  the  least  accessible  part  of  the  site  or  at  the 
weakest,  the  idea  in  the  latter  case  being  further  to  strengthen 
the  weakest  part.  Not  all  castles  have  this  completeness.  In 
the  Romanesque  period  castles  were  simpler  than  in  the  Gothic, 
and  even  before  the  Romanesque  period  there  were  castle- 


FIG.    179 — COUCY.      GENERAL    VIEW   OF   THE   CASTLE    GROUNDS,    SHOWING 
THE  DONJON  BEFORE  ITS  DESTRUCTION  IN  1917 


like  defenses,  mounds  protected  by  earthworks,  ditches,  and 
palisades.  These  mounds  and  ditches  often  became  part  of  the 
system  of  defenses  of  castles  subsequently  raised  upon  the 
sites.  Some  castles  lacked  donjons ;  some  retained  the  square 
keep  in  preference  to  the  round.  In  the  earlier  castles  the 
systems  of  defense  were  single ; .  later  they  became  concentric. 
Diversity  was  great,  but  fundamental  characteristics  were  the 
same. 

Examples  of  Gothic  castles.  Coucy.  Many  countries  exhibit 
important  and  well-preserved  examples  of  the  medieval  cas- 
tle. In  England  there  are  many,  both  of  the  Norman  and 
of  later  periods,  among  which  we  may  emphasize  the  castle 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


327 


of  Harlech,  one  of  the  most  stupendous  fortresses  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  medieval  builders  learned  much  of  fortress 
building  in  the  crusades,  and  the  Latin  Orient  contains 
some  of  the  most  impressive  remains  of  military  architect- 
ure. As  so  frequently  in  medieval  architecture,  France 
offers  perhaps  the  finest  monuments  of  all,  especially  good 
examples  being  the  castles 
of  Pierrefonds  and  Coucy 
(Figs.  139  and  179).  Pierre 
fonds  has  been  restored  by 
Viollet-le-Duc,  and,  though 
in  a  sense  a  false  document, 
presents  a  most  vivid  recon- 
struction, on  the  part  of  a 
profound  medievalist,  of  a 
Gothic  castle.  The  more 
impressive  Coucy,  blown  up 
by  Mazarin,  is  in  ruins.  Its 
donjon,  210  feet  in  height, 
with  walls  in  some  places  34 
feet  thick,  still  stands.1  Such 
a  building,  before  the  days 
of  gunpowder,  was  literally 
impregnable,  and  Coucy  was 
never  taken.  To  understand 

the  spirit  which  dominated   FIG-  I8°— A  MEDIEVAL  TOWN  HOUSE. 
the  medieval  castle,  and  the 
consequent  architectural  ex- 
pression which  it  attained,  one  needs  but  read  the  motto  of 
the  Sieurs  de  Coucy:  "Roi  ne  suys,  ne  prince,  ne  due,  ne 
comte  aussi;  je  suys  le  Sire  de  Coucy."1 

So  superbly  insolent  a  motto  was  justified  by  the  lordship 
of  such  a  building. 

Later  castles.  As  time  went  on  the  nobles  lightened  the 
appearance  of  their  dwellings  and  sacrificed  somewhat,  though 
never  to  a  dangerous  extent,  the  defensive  character  of  the 

1It  is  reported  (April,  1917)  that  the  retreating  Germans  have  razed 
completely  this  famous  monument. 

2 1  am  not  king,  nor  prince,  nor  duke,  nor  even  count;   I  am  the  Lord 
of  Coucy. 
12 


328        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


work.  For  instance  the  castle  of  Jean-de-Berry  at  Mehun- 
sur-Yevre,  built  in  1386  and  known  to  us  by  an  illumina- 
tion, succeeded  in  combining  late  Gothic  delicacy  with 
adequate  defense.  Defense  was,  however,  still  the  underly- 
ing idea. 

The  town  house.  The  need  of  defense  lay  like  a  shadow 
athwart  all  civil  architecture.  The  town  house  (Fig.  180)  was 

arranged  for  de- 
fense, not  against 
soldiers  but  against 
roisterers  and 
ruffians.  The  en- 
trance was  raised 
well  above  the 
street  and  the 
stairs  arranged 
along  the  flank  of 
the  wall.  Before 
reaching  the  plat- 
form on  which  the 
door  opened,  the 
way  was  blocked 
by  an  open  grille, 
through  which  a 
pike  could  be 
thrust  to  repel  un- 
desirables. In  the 
town  house  exi- 
gencies of  space  caused  the  upper  story  to  expand,  and, 
carried  on  beams  or  corbels,  to  overhang  the  street  in  the 
manner  already  noted  in  medieval  Constantinople.  This 
scheme  was  followed  whether  the  house  were  of  stone  or 
of  wood. 

The  peasant's  house.  The  country  peasant's  house  (Fig. 
181)  commonly  had  the  same  raised  doorway,  flanking  stair- 
way, and  platform  for  defense  as  the  city  house.  There  was 
generally.no  connection  between  the  upper  story  and  the 
ground  story,  the  latter  being  used  for  the  animals.  The  walls 
and  gable  ends  were  often  of  monumental  cut  stone;  the  roofs 
usually  steeply  pitched  and  thatched.  Such  peasant  houses 


FIG.    l8l — THE    COUNTRY    DWELLING    OF    A    MEDI- 
EVAL  PEASANT.       (VIOLLET-LE-DUC) 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


329 


had  all  the  charm  of  picturesqueness,  honesty,  and  directness 
in  fulfilling  architectural  needs. 

The  fortified  manor.  Of  more  ambitious  dimensions  and 
defenses  were  the  country  fortified  manors.  These  were 
generally  square,  with  turrets  at  the  corners,  reaching  to  the 
ground  or  carried  on  corbels.  The  manor  was  surrounded  by 
a  moat,  and  the  approach  to  the  small  gate  made  by  means  of 
a  draw.  Within  was  an  open  court.  Such  a  type  of  dwelling 
may  be  seen  at  Saint  Medard- 
en-Jalle  (Fig.  182),  near 
Landes,  and  at  Camarsac 
(Gironde). 

Municipal  and  corporation 
halls.  Especially  in  the  later 
Middle  Ages  the  municipal 
and  corporation  halls  at- 
tained great  importance. 
The  Hotel  de  Ville  of  France 
and  Flanders,  the  Palazzo 
Pubblico  of  Italy,  the 
Rathaus  of  Germany,  re- 
ceived monumental  treat- 
ment. Of  the  same  sort  were 
the  guild  halls,  semi  -  com- 
munistic in  character,  which 
were  common  in  free  towns 
all  over  Europe,  but  especi- 
ally in  Flanders.  The  hall 

survived  or  fell  with  the  town,  and  was  not  intended  to 
resist  assault  if  the  town  were  taken,  consequently  plans  were 
more  regular,  esthetic  considerations  were  more  emphasized. 
The  buildings  lacked  the  frowning  character  of  fortified  works, 
were  more  delicate,  more  profusely  ornamented,  and  better 
mirrored  the  contemporary  style.  This  is  especially  true  in 
the  buildings  of  late  date,  and  the  finest  belong  to  the  Flam- 
boyant period. 

The  town  and  guild  halls  of  Flanders.  The  town  halls  were 
generally  of  fairly  regular  plan.  The  lower  story  was  usually 
the  record  office.  In  Flanders  a  beffroi,  or  clock  tower,  with  a 
bell  for  summoning  the  citizens,  was  a  common  adjunct.  The 


FIG.  182 — SAINT  MEDARD-EN-JALLE. 
SKETCH  OF  THE  MANOR.  (VIOLLET- 
LE-DUC) 


330        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

buildings  were  usually  two  or  more  stories  in  height,  with  the 
central  portion  carried  up  as  a  tower  which  started  square  and 
became  octagonal.  Roofs  were  very  steep,  and  generally 
supplied  with  picturesque  dormers.  Among  the  fine  Flemish 
halls  we  may  mention  those  of  Ghent  (1481),  Brussels  (1401- 


FIG.  183 — YPRES.   THE  CLOTH  HALL  AS  IT  APPEARED  BEFORE  THE  BOM- 
BARDMENT OF  1914 

55),  and  Louvain.  The  trade  and  guild  halls  of  Flanders 
usually  differed  only  in  interior  arrangement  from  the  town 
hall,  and  were  frequently  taken  over  at  a  later  date,  and  used 
as  town  halls.  The  finest  of  all  the  Belgian  trade  halls  was  the 
so-called  Cloth  Hall  of  Ypres  (Fig.  183),  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  century,  but  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  shell 
fire  in  1914. 

Halls  and  mansions  of  France.  In  France  we  find  the  same 
types  of  monuments,  especially  important  in  the  Flamboyant 
period.  These  buildings  were  erected  as  town  halls,  as  trade 
halls,  or  often  merely  as  private  residences  of  the  very  wealthy 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  331 

bourgeois.  The  private  mansion  usually  lacked  the  beffroi 
of  the  town  hall,  otherwise  the  buildings  were  similar.  The 
main  unit  was  the  bay  of  two  or  more  stories.  Tiers  of 
windows  were  divided  by  buttresses  with  Flamboyant  detail, 
the  Flamboyant  arch,  with  delicate  and  eccentric  curves, 
being  used  throughout.  The  favorite  form  of  window  was  the 
transom  or  cross  window,  the  light  being  divided  by  an  up- 
right mullion  in  the  center,  and  a  cross-bar  of  stone  one- 


FIG.    184 — BOURGES.      MAISON   DE  JACQUES  COEUR 

third  of  the  distance  from 'the  top.  Each  window  was  thus  a 
rhythmic  reproduction  of  the  one  below.  Roofs  were  very 
steeply  pitched,  and  provided  with  dormers  which  repeated 
the  motifs  of  the  windows  perpendicularly  below  them.  In  the 
courtyard  the  ground  story  arcade  was  usually  open.  Plan 
and  skyline  were  broken  by  pavilions,  and  by  elaborate 
chimneys.  The  whole  effect  was  delicate,  orderly,  yet 
picturesque.  Good  examples  of  this  Flamboyant  French 
secular  architecture  may  be  seen  at  Paris  in  the  H6tel  Cluny, 


332        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

at  Rouen  in  the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  at  Bourges  in  the 
Maison  de  Jacques  Cceur  (Fig.  184). 

Domestic  architecture  in  England.  In  England,  as  in  France, 
domestic  architecture  followed  civil  architecture  in  detail.  At 
first  the  mansions  were  built  around  a  court,  but  the  entrance 
side  of  the  square  came  to  be  omitted,  and  irregularities  were 
soon  introduced.  The  trend  was  toward  picturesqueness,  irregu- 


FIG.    185 — FLORENCE.      THE    PALAZZO    VECCHIO 

larity,  and  small  scale,  so  that  the  Tudor  houses  give  a  greater 
impression  of  intimacy  than  any  works  on  the  continent.  The 
Middle  Ages  thus  prepared  the  way  for  later  English  domestic 
work,  and  such  a  building  as  Compton  Wynyates,  though 
medieval  in  detail,  is  Renaissance  in  spirit. 

Secular  architecture  in  Italy.  Municipal  individuality.  In 
Italy,  as  in  Flanders  and  France,  there  was  little  difference 
architecturally  between  the  town  hall,  the  ducal  palace,  and 
the  private  residence  of  the  wealthy  citizen,  and  the  same 
building  often  combined  two  or  more  functions.  Differ- 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


333 


ences  came  from  date,  and  above  all  from  geography. 
Nothing  more  clearly  shows  the  independence  and  self- 
sufficiency  of  the  Italian  medieval  civic  spirit  than  the  way  in 
which  each  city  arrogated  to  itself  a  peculiar  type  of  secular 
architecture,  a  fact  which  held  true  when  towns  were  near 
together  and  in  constant  communication.  In  certain  general 
ways  all  Italian  medieval 
mansions  resembled  one  an- 
other. They  were  usually 
regular  in  plan,  built  round 
a  court,  and  provided  with 
a  campanile  incorporated  or 
free  standing.  Divergence 
occurred  principally  in  the 
arrangements  of  details  in  a 
bay,  in  the  treatment  of  de- 
tail, and  in  the  general  ex- 
pression of  the  building. 

Domestic  architecture  of 
Florence  and  Siena.  In  Flor- 
ence, as  we  may  see  by  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  (Fig.  185) 
or  the  Bargello,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  building  was  for- 
bidding. There  was  no  di- 
vision of  the  exterior  into 
bays,  and  the  stone  used 

was  dark  and  roughly  rusticated.  The  characteristic  window 
had  two  lights,  separated  by  a  mullion  and  embraced  by  a 
pointed  arch,  the  intrados  and  extrados  of  which  were  not  con- 
centric but  wider  apart  at  the  crown  than  at  the  springing.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  of  Siena  (Fig.  186)  shows 
that  the  Sienese  architect,  like  the  Sienese  painter,  sought 
more  graceful  and  less  forbidding  forms.  The  material 
received  a  finer  finish,  and  the  use  of  brick  was  common.  The 
campanile  was  made  more  slender  and  loftier.  The  window 
form  was  a  design  of  three  lancet-like  lights,  with  very  pointed 
arches  and  delicate  cusps,  embraced  by  a  single  highly  pointed 
arch  with  concentric  intrados  and  extrados.  Each  town  thus 
sought  a  native  form,  especially  of  window  opening,  for  its 


FIG.    1 86 — SIENA.      THE    PALAZZO 
PUBBLICO 


334 


A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


own,  and  originality  is  always  found  except  where  one  city  was 
able  to  force  its  ideas  upon  another. 

Secular  buildings  of  Venice.  The  most  famous,  and  in  many 
ways  the  most  charming  and  original  Italian  secular  buildings 
of  the  Middle  Ages  were  those  of  Venice.  These,  like  so  much 
secular  work,  attained  greatest  heights  during  the  Flamboyant 
period,  and  the  secular  buildings  were  new  in  general  expres- 


FIG.    187 — VENICE.      THE   PALAZZO   DUCALE 


sion  as  well  as  detail.  Ground  story  arcades  were  almost 
invariably  left  open,  and,  as  the  eye  ascended,  the  building 
became  less  broken,  so  that  the  effect  was  to  reduplicate  by 
the  reflection  of  the  canals  the  most  complicated  parts  of  the 
architecture.  Rich  but  harmonious  polychromy  was  used  to 
fortify  crisp  carving.  Sometimes  exteriors  were  veneered  with 
polished  marble,  sometimes  terra  cotta,  or  smaller  stones  in 
two  colors  giving  the  impression  of  terra  cotta,  were  used. 
The  most  sinuous  and  graceful  of  ogee  curves  was  used  for 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  335 

openings  and  arches,  the  curves  counterpoised  by  delicate 
cusps,  giving  the  actual  opening  a  pointed  trefoil  form.  Such 
arches  were  commonly  interlaced,  and  the  consequent  quatre- 
foils  between  them  were  cusped  and  given  round  or  slender 
pointed  form.  Roofs,  like  all  Italian  palace  roofs,  were  kept 
flat.  In  lieu  of  cornices  the  roof  edges  were  decorated  with 
conventionalized  spiny  battlements,  of  colored  stone  or  even 
wood,  which  added  to  the  piquancy  of  the  effect.  In  a  sense 
all  the  Venetian  medieval  palaces  were  offshoots  of  the 
Palazzo  Ducale  (Fig.  187).  This  most  monumental  of  secular 
buildings  in  Venice  set  the  fashion  which  was  followed  with 
delicate  variation  and  refinement  in  many  other  buildings,  and 
from  Venice  the  style  spread  over  the  Venetian  contado. 

Other  Gothic  monuments.  Though  we  must  here  bring  to  a 
close  our  discussion  of  medieval  secular  architecture,  it  is 
necessary  to  point  out  the  existence  of  numerous  monuments 
of  medieval  art,  usually  wholly  forgotten,  which  aid  in  a  com- 
prehension of  the  style.  Bridges,  such  as  that  at  Avignon  or 
the  Pont  Valentre  (Fig.  188)  at  Cahors,  are  often  really  great 
monuments  of  Gothic  architecture,  combining  the  needs  of 
defense  with  logical  construction  and  fine  proportions. 
Similarly  much  can  be  learned  from  boundary  monuments, 
lanternes  des  marts  (monuments  to  signalize  the  presence  of 
a  cemetery),  well  heads,  dove-cotes,  and  even  latrines.  In 
short  the  mass  of  material  is  enormous,  and  a  little  explored 
field  is  open  to  the  student  of  medieval  secular  architecture. 

The  medieval  ensemble.  Picturesqueness  and  its  cause.  As 
one  would  expect,  the  ensemble  in  medieval  times  is  note- 
worthy for  its  irregularity  and  picturesqueness.  Buildings 
as  a  group  were  not  planned  in  an  orderly  way,  except  in  the 
case  of  buildings  for  defense,  when  everything  gave  way  to 
a  definite  scheme.  Even  here,  as  we  have  seen,  the  result  was 
generally  asymmetrical,  except  where  the  terrain  was  abso- 
lutely without  variety.  The  picturesqueness  of  the  medieval 
ensemble  was  not,  however,  the  result  of  mere  haphazard 
grouping.  It  came  principally  from  a  logical  conformity  to 
the  peculiarities  of  the  site,  and  is  allied  to  the  structural  logic 
which  produced  the  Gothic  cathedral.  For  example,  if  a 
Gothic  architect  were  designing  a  bridge  he  would  not  design 
a  symmetrical  one  with  an  even  rise  and  fall,  and  force  his 


336        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

workmen  to  place  it  across  a  river  of  any  sort  of  bottom.  He 
would  consider  first  the  river  bottom,  discover  the  position  of 
the  channel,  and  then  design  the  bridge  with  the  arch  of 
longest  span  over  the  channel.  If  this  were  toward  one 
bank,  as  it  frequently  was,  the  result  was  asymmetry  and 
picturesqueness,  but  picturesqueness  created  and  governed  by 


FIG.  1 88 — CAHORS.   THE  PONT  VALENTRE 


structural  good  sense.  The  picturesqueness  of  the  ensemble 
was  similarly  governed.  Those  who  regard  the  medieval  town 
plan  as  merely  haphazard  have  as  their  ideal  a  construction 
which,  by  means  of  leveling,  grading,  and  difficult  engineering, 
oftentimes  destroys  the  local  flavor  of  the  site  in  order  to  pre- 
pare for  an  artificial  grouping.  The  medieval  architect,  from 
whatever  motive,  preferred  to  harmonize  buildings  to  site 
rather  than  vice  versa,  and  as  a  result  the  medieval  ensemble 
more  frequently  looks  as  though  it  belonged  properly  to  the 
country  than  the  ensemble  at  an  earlier  or  a  later  date. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  337 

The  influence  of  Gothic  structural  principles.  The  in- 
fluence of  Gothic  architecture  on  later  styles  was  of  many 
sorts.  The  subtlest,  and  perhaps  the  most  important,  was  the 
influence  of  Gothic  structural  principles.  These,  once  learned, 
could  never  wholly  be  forgotten.  Even  at  a  period  when 
Gothic  itself  was  despised,  Gothic  structural  designs  lived, 
were  freely  applied,  and,  it  must  be  confessed,  were  often 
wofully  misunderstood.  Even  the  Gothic  details,  moldings, 
carving  and  the  like,  left  their  impress  on  later  detail,  especially 
in  the  early  Renaissance. 

Influence  of  Flamboyant  Gothic  in  France.  Turning  to  more 
concrete  examples  of  Gothic  influence,  the  importance  of  the 
Flamboyant  style  in  the  history  of  architecture  has  never 
properly  been  emphasized.  Outside  of  Italy,  where  the 
Renaissance  was  a  natural  classical  revival,  Flamboyant 
Gothic  determined  the  most  significant  expression  of  later 
architecture.  In  the  early  Renaissance  the  system  was  but 
one  of  a  superficial  application  of  imported  Italian  Renaissance 
detail  to  a  structure  fundamentally  and  in  significant  motifs 
Flamboyant  Gothic.  One  need  only  compare  the  Hdtel 
Cluny  with  the  Chateau  de  Chenonceau  to  prove  this.  Even 
much  later,  when  the  Renaissance  in  France  became  more 
formal,  essentials  of  Flamboyant  Gothic  remained.  If  we 
analyze,  say  the  formal  portions  of  the  Louvre,  and  ask  our- 
selves what  gives  the  building  its  peculiarly  French  flavor 
despite  its  classic  detail,  we  shall  be  forced  to  reply  the  steep 
roofs,  the  dormers,  the  broken  skyline,  the  pavilions.  All  of 
these  are  of  native  medieval  French  origin,  and  withstood  the 
assaults  of  Italian  classicism. 

Influence  of  fifteenth  century  Gothic  elsewhere.  What  is  true 
in  France  is  true  elsewhere.  The  Perpendicular  Tudor  house 
determined  the  form  of  the  Early  English  Renaissance  dwell- 
ing. The  picturesqueness,  the  irregularity,  the  small  scale 
which  we  associate  with  English  domestic  architecture,  is  of 
medieval  origin,  and  the  modern  Englishman  reverts  to  it  as  his 
national  style.  In  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries  the  stepped 
gables  and  picturesqueness  of  medieval  architecture  were  but 
overlaid  with  classical  detail.  In  Spain  the  Plateresque  style 
was  the  freest  warping  of  classic  detail  to  make  it  fit  the  lines 
of  Flamboyant  Spanish  Gothic.  Flamboyant  Gothic  was, 


338        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

therefore,  one  of  the  most  influential  of  the  world's  styles,  and 
its  power  is  by  no  means  spent. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  MONUMENTS 

FRANCE  AND   FLANDERS 

Morienval. — Earlier  parts  c.  1080;   later  c.  1120. 

Saint  Germer  de  Fly. — 1130-60. 

Paris,  Saint  Martin  des  Champs. — c.  1136. 

Creil. — c.  1140. 

Senlis. — c.  1155-91. 

Paris,  Saint  Germain  des  Pres. — Dedicated  1163;  some  parts  con- 
siderably earlier. 

Paris,  Cathedral. — 1163-1235. 

Avignon,   Pont  Saint  Benezet. — 1177-85. 

Langres. — Twelfth  century. 

Carcassonne,  Fortifications. — -Chiefly  late  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries. 

Soissons.— Choir  finished  1212;  rest  mid-thirteenth  century;  spire 
c.  1160. 

Chartres. — -Facade  c.  1145;  rest  chiefly  1194-1260;  earlier  spire  c. 
1250;  later  spire  1507-14. 

Reims. — 1 2 1 1-90. 

Amiens. — 1 2  20-88. 

Coucy. — Early  thirteenth  century. 

Aigues-Mortes. — Town  founded  1246;    fortifications  begun  1^72. 

Paris,  Sainte  Chapelle. — Dedicated  1248. 

Saint  Medard-en-Jalle. — First  half  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Ypres,  Cloth  Hall.— Thirteenth  century. 

Camarsac. — Late  thirteenth  or  early  fourteenth  century. 

Rouen,  Saint  Ouen. — 1318-39  and  later. 

Amiens  Cathedral,  Chapel  of  Saint  John. — 1373-75. 

Mehun  sur  Yevre,  Castle  of  Jean  de  Berry. — 1386. 

Pierrefonds. — c.  1390. 

Cahors,  Pont  Valentre. — Fourteenth  century. 

Brussels,  Hotel  de  Ville. — 1401-55. 

Louvain,  Hotel  de  Ville. — 1448-59. 

Abbeville,  Saint  Vulfram. — Begun  1480. 

Ghent,  Hotel  de  Ville. — 1481. 

Paris,  Hotel  Cluny. — 1490. 

Quimper. — Chiefly  fifteenth  century. 

Nantes. — Chiefly  fifteenth  century. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  339 

Chambery. — Chiefly  fifteenth  century. 

Bourges,  Maison  de  Jacques  Cceur. — End  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Rouen,  Saint  Maclou. — Finished  1541. 

Beauvais  Cathedral,  Flamboyant  transept. — 1548. 

Troyes. — Sixteenth  century. 

ENGLAND 

Canterbury. — Begun  1175. 

Lincoln. — Early  English  Work. — 1185-1200. 

Salisbury. — 1220-58. 

Wells. — Dedicated  1239. 

Lincoln  Cathedral,  Angel  Choir. — 1255-80 

York,  choir  and  west  front. — 1261-1324. 

Harlech  Castle. — c.  1300. 

Gloucester. — transepts  and  choir  1331-37;  cloisters  1351-1412. 

Windsor,  Saint  George's  Chapel. — 1481-1537. 

London,  Westminster  Abbey,  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel. — 1500-12. 

Compton  Wynyates. — 1520. 

GERMANY 

Bamberg. — 1185-1274. 

Miinster. — 1225-61. 

Marburg,  Saint  Elizabeth. — 1235-83. 

Naumburg. — Nave  before  1249;   choir  1250-1330. 

Cologne. — Begun  1248;  choir  consecrated  1322;  much  work  modern. 

Strasburg. — 1250-75;  facade  1275-1318. 

Freiburg. — Nave  1260;   choir  1354. 

Treves. — Remodeled  thirteenth  century. 

Soest,  Wiesenkirche. — Founded  1314. 

Ulm. — Begun  1377;  finished  sixteenth  century. 

Gmund,  The  Holy  Cross. — Fourteenth  century. 

Mulhausen,  Liebfrauenkirche. — Fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

Nurnberg,  Saint  Lawrence. — Begun  end  of  the  thirteenth  century; 

nave  1403-45;  choir  1445-72. 
Gorlitz,  Saints  Peter  and  Paul. — 1423-97. 
Nordlingen,  Saint  George. — 1427-1505. 
Munich,  Frauenkirche. — 1468-88. 
Halle,  Saint  Mary. — 1535-54. 

ITALY 

Fossanova . — 1187. 

Casamari. — 1217. 

San  Galgano. — c.  1220. 


340        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Assisi,  Saint  Francis. — 1228-53. 

Venice,  Santi  Giovanni  e  Paolo. — Begun  1234. 

Bologna,  Saint  Francis. — 1236-40. 

Siena. — c.  1245-84. 

Viterbo,  San  Martino. — Mid-thirteenth  century. 

Florence,  Bargello. — Begun  1255. 

Siena,  Palazzo  Pubblico. — 1289-1309. 

Florence,  Cathedral. — 1296-1367. 

Orvieto. — End  of  the  thirteenth  and  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 

centuries. 

Florence,  Giotto's  Campanile. — Designed  1334-36. 
Venice,  Palazzo  Ducale. — Founded   814;   outer  walls  rebuilt  1340; 

west  facade  early  fifteenth  century. 
Milan. — Founded  1386;   finished  sixteenth  century. 
Pa  via,  Abbey  Church. — Begun  1396;  finished  in  the  Renaissance. 

SPAIN  AND   PORTUGAL 

Alcobaza  (Portugal). — 1148-1222. 

Santa  Creus. — 1157. 

Seville,  Giralda. — 1184-96;    remodeled  1568. 

Las  Huelgas.  en  Burgos. — 1187-1214. 

Poblet. — Second  half  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Burgos. — Founded  1226. 

Toledo. — c.  1236. 

Barcelona. — 1 298-1420. 

Leon. — c.  1300. 

Gerona. — 1316. 

Seville. — Begun  1401. 

Burgos  Cathedral,  spires. — Begun  1442. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

In  A.  Michel's  Histoire  de  I' Art,  vol.  2,  pts.  i  and  2,  and  vol.  3, 
pt.  i,  1906-07,  are  excellent  and  authoritative  accounts  of  the  de- 
velopment of  Gothic  architecture,  and  of  the  character  of  the  art 
in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  and  the  Flamboyant  period. 
The  bibliographies  are  especially  valuable.  E.  E.  Viollet-le-Duc's 
Dictionnaire  raisonnS  de  V architecture,  1884-88,  already  quoted,  cov- 
ers much  more  than  Gothic,  but,  in  dictionary  form,  is  one  of  the  most 
monumental  pieces  of  research  in  Gothic.  As  an  original  source 
Villard  de  Honnecourt's  Album,  1906,  and  earlier  editions  (written  in 
the  thirteenth  century),  is  the  most  interesting  and  important.  K. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  341 

Schnaase's  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kunst,  1866-76,  presents  two  vol- 
umes on  medieval  architecture,  out  of  date  but  important.  One  of  the 
most  illuminating  and  best  illustrated  general  works,  G.  Dehio  and 
G.  von  Bezold's  Kirchliche  Baukunst  des  Abendlandes,  1884-99,  has 
already  been  quoted.  Similarly  B.  and  B.  F.  Fletcher's  History  of 
Architecture,  1905,  has  been  quoted,  and  is  specially  useful  for  English 
Gothic.  F.  von  Reber's  History  of  Medieval  Art,  1886,  covers  the  whole 
field  but  emphasizes  German  architecture.  F.  M.  Simpson's  History  of 
Architectural  Development,  vol.  2, 1909,  is  useful  for  the  study  of  details 
of  structure.  C.  H.  Moore's  Gothic  Architecture,  1906,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  and  profound  works  on  the  subject,  tending,  however, 
to  over-emphasize  structural  logic,  and  cursory  and  unsympathetic 
in  the  treatment  of  the  art  outside  of  thirteenth-century  France. 
A.  K.  Porter's  Medieval  Architecture,  1912,  already  cited,  treats  the 
subject  frankly  from  the  structural  point  of  view  and  is  a  monumental 
and  up-to-date  piece  of  scholarship.  J.  Quicherat's  Melanges 
d'archeologie,  vol.  2,  Moyen-dge,  1886,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
early  studies  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  styles.  It  was  followed 
by  L.  Courajod's  Origines  de  I'art  roman  et  gothique,  1889,  a  shrewd 
though  ont-of-date  analysis  of  the  origin  of  the  styles.  Both  works 
emphasize  the  art  in  France.  L.  Gonse's  L'art  gothique,  1890,  is  a 
monumental  volume  covering  all  Gothic  art,  but  specially  useful 
for  the  study  of  French  Gothic.  J.  A.  Brutails'  L'archeologie  du 
moyen-dge,  1900,  has  already  been  quoted  as  a  clever  study  of  the 
methods  of  medieval  archaeology,  as  well  as  A.  Marignan's  Les 
methodes  du  passe  dans  I'archeologiefran^aise,  1911,  the  most  extreme 
though  somewhat  discredited  work  on  the  subject. 

E.  Corroyer's  Architecture  gothique,  1891,  is  an  out-of-date  but 
compact  and  interesting  little  volume  on  Gothic  architecture  in 
France  and  Flanders.  The  best  modern  histories  of  medieval,  and 
especially  Gothic,  architecture  in  France  are  C.  Enlart's  Architecture 
religieuse  en  France,  1902,  and  Architecture  civile  et  militaire  en 
France,  1903,  encyclopedic  works  of  research  which  are  worthy 
successors  to  the  publications  of  Viollet-le-Duc.  For  the  thirteenth 
century  E.  Male's  L'art  religieux  en  France  au  XIII.  siecle,  1902,  is 
especially  fine.  The  Abbe  Bosseboeuf's  L' Architecture  Plantagcnet, 
1897,  affords  an  interesting  study  of  a  specially  significant  local 
variety  of  the  style.  G.  H.  West's  Gothic  Architecture  in  England 
and  France,  1911,  is  a  small  but  well-arranged  and  fair-minded  study 
of-  the  architecture  in  both  countries. 

Although  wofully  out  of  date,  J.  Britton's  The  Cathedral  Antiquities 
of  Great  Britain,  1836,  is  a  five-volume  work  of  real  value  for  the 
study  of  English  Gothic.  E.  Sharpe's  The  Seven  Periods  of  English 
Architecture,  1871,  and  T.  Rickman's  An  Attempt  to  Discriminate  the 


342        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Styles  of  Architecture  in  England,  1881,  cited  under  Romanesque,  are 
immensely  more  important  works  of  research  in  the  styles  of  English 
Gothic.  G.  G.  Scott's  English  Church  Architecture,  1881,  despite  its 
date,  is  a  valuable  work  on  the  English  style.  E.  S.  Prior's  A  History 
of  Gothic  Art  in  England,  1900,  is  a  valuable  and  modern  synthetic 
work.  R.  and  J.  A.  Brandon's  An  Analysis  of  Gothic  Architecture,  1903, 
is  a  profusely  illustrated  work,  especially  useful  for  the  study  of  detail. 
F.  Bond's  Gothic  Architecture  in  England,  1905,  is  one  of  the  most 
scholarly  of  the  modern  books  on  the  style,  and  it  was  succeeded  by 
the  author's  English  Church  Architecture,  1913,  the  most  modern  and 
probably  the  most  valuable  work  to-day  on  English  medieval  archi- 
tecture. C.  H.  Moore's  Medieval  Church  Architecture  of  England, 
1912,  is  an  important  book  by  the  great  Gothic  scholar  amplifying  and 
modifying  somewhat  the  author's  views  on  English  Gothic  expressed 
in  earlier  publications.  G.  H.  Polley  &  Co.'s  English  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture and  Ornament,  1897,  presents  a  valuable  collection  of  plates 
for  the  study  of  the  style.  G.  T.  Clark's  Medieval  Military  Archi- 
tecture in  Great  Britain,  1884,  though  out  of  date,  is  a  scholarly  work 
in  a  special  field.  Bell's  Cathedral  Series  will  be  found  useful  as 
presenting  a  long  series  of  monographs  on  single  buildings. 

W.  Lubke's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kunst,  1880,  is  a  monumental 
work,  out  of  date  but  authoritative  in  the  treatment  of  German 
Gothic.  H.  Otte's  Handbuch  der  kirchlichen  Kunst-Archdologie  des 
deutschen  Mittelalters,  1883,  though  very  general  and  old-fashioned, 
is  still  useful  for  the  student.  H.  Bergner's  Kirchliche  Kunstal- 
tertumer  in  Deutschland,  1905,  is  an  encyclopedic  and  modern  work 
covering  the  German  field  of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  Btirger- 
liche  Kunstaltertumer  in  Deutschland,  1906,  by  the  same  author, 
discusses  the  secular  art.  C.  Schaefer  and  O.  Stiehl's  Die  muster  - 
giltigen  Kirchbauten  des  Mittelalters  in  Deutschland,  1901,  is  a  superbly 
illustrated  folio.  An  equally  valuable  folio  is  H.  Hartung's  Motive 
der  mittelalterlichen  Baukunst  in  Deutschland,  1904.  B.  Ebhardt's 
Deutsche  Burgen,  1901,  already  cited,  is  useful  for  the  study  of 
castellan  architecture. 

C.  E.  Street's  Gothic  Architecture  in  Spain,  1865,  is  one  of  the  first 
great  works  of  research  in  Spanish  Gothic.  V.  Lamperez  y  Romea's 
Arquitectura  Cristiana  en  la  Edad  Media,  1909,  already  cited  as  the 
most  valuable  work  on  Spanish  medieval  architecture,  is  as  authori- 
tative on  Gothic  as  on  the  earlier  styles. 

C.  E.  Boito's  A.rchittetura  del  media  evo  in  Italia,  1880,  is  an  ancient 
and  limited  but  still  useful  work  on  the  Italian  medieval  field.  C.  C. 
Cumming's  A  History  of  Architecture  in  Italy,  1901,  treats  the  Gothic 
architecture  in  as  popular  and  able  a  way  as  the  earlier  styles. 
C.  Enlart's  Originesfranqaises  de  I' architecture  gothique  en  Italic,  1894, 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  343 

is  still  the  most  important  and  illuminating  book  on  the  origins  of 
Italian  Gothic.  G.  E.  Street's  Brick  and  Marble  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
1874,  is  an  interesting  volume  on  the  medieval  architecture  of  Italy, 
with  some  discussion  of  the  northern  styles.  G.  R.  de  Fleury's 
La  Toscane  au  moyen  age,  1873,  is  a  superbly  illustrated  folio  work  on 
medieval  Tuscan  architecture.  C.  E.  Norton's  Church  Building  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  1902,  itself  a  work  of  art  on  account  of  the  author's 
style,  presents  an  interesting  description  of  the  building  of  the 
cathedrals  of  Venice,  Siena,  and  Florence.  E.  Bertaux's  L'art  dans 
V Italic  meridionale,  1904,  covers  the  monuments  of  southern  Italy 
in  an  interesting  and  scholarly  way. 

A.  G.  B.  Schayes's  Histoire  de  V architecture  en  Belgique,  1850-60, 
already  quoted,  is  of  great  value  for  the  study  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  Flanders.  C.  Enlart's  L'art  gothique  en  Chypre,  1899,  is  a  scholarly 
work  illuminating  as  a  study  of  the  Gothic  architecture  built  in  the 
East  by  the  crusaders. 


CHAPTER  X 
RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 

The  architecture  of  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  was, 
in  a  greater  measure  than  any  other  art,  veritably  a  rebirth 
of  the  forms  of  classical  antiquity.  This  involved,  however, 
neither  a  sharp  interruption  of  the  developments  of  the  Middle 
Ages  nor  a  negation  of  originality  and  modernity.  Most  of  the 
forces  which  tended  to  bring  about  the  new  era  in  Europe  were 
already  at  work  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  and  were  thus  not 
primarily  results  of  the  revival  of  classical  learning.  The 
decay  of  the  medieval  church  and  empire,  the  decline  of  the 
feudal  system  and  the  rise  of  nationalities  and  languages,  were 
movements  which  appeared  everywhere  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  along  with  a  more  human  and  a  more 
naturalistic  view  of  life.  The  growing  tendency  nowadays  to 
regard  Dante,  Giotto,  and  the  sculptors  Pisani  as  true  men  of 
the  Middle  Ages — essentially  at  one  with  the  poets  of  Provence, 
the  painters  of  Burgundy,  and  the  carvers  of  the  portals  at 
Reims — emphasizes  the  continuity  of  the  Renaissance  with 
medievalism.  In  many  of  these  men  there  mingled  with  the 
Christian  and  northern  tendencies  other  tendencies  which 
were  pagan  and  classical,  forming  a  steady  undercurrent 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  It  needed  merely  a  change  in 
the  relative  strength  of  these  tendencies  to  bring  the  classical 
current  to  the  surface.  By  the  early  years  of  the  fifteenth 
century  this  change  was  accomplished  in  Italy,  and  art  and 
literature  alike  were  profoundly  influenced.  The  humanists, 
who  tried  to  reconstitute  a  free  and  natural  life  by  the  aid  of 
Greek  and  Roman  literature,  had  their  counterparts  in 
Brunelleschi,  Donatello,  and  Masaccio,  who  enriched  the  arts 
not  only  by  observation  of  nature  but  by  study  of  the  works 
of  ancient  Rome. 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE         345 

Retrospective,  traditional,  and  original  elements.  In  architect- 
ure there  resulted  an  imitation  of  the  Roman  vocabulary  of 
architectural  forms,  employed  in  part  for  the  translation  of 
ideas  fundamentally  medieval,  in  part  for  the  expression  of 
ideas  essentially  novel.  Medieval  dispositions  clothed  in 
details  of  the  classic  orders,  medieval  craftsmanship  exercised 
in  the  application  and  variation  of  classical  motives  of  orna- 
ment, are  characteristic  of  much  Renaissance  work,  especially 
work  that  is  early  or  removed  from  the  center  of  origin.  Even 
more  characteristic,  however,  are  the  new  conceptions  in  the 
composition  of  space  and  in  the  modeling  of  surface,  which 
are  embodied  both  in  some  of  the  earliest  productions  and  in 
many  mature  ones.  These  conceptions,  although  likewise 
realized  in  forms  inspired  by  antiquity,  were  themselves  quite 
modern.  Even  the  forms  of  detail,  supposedly  classical, 
differed  inevitably  in  a  hundred  respects  from  those  which 
furnished  their  ideals.  The  uses  to  which  buildings  and  forms 
necessarily  correspond  were  likewise  different  in  many  respects 
from  those  of  preceding  periods.  The  relative  importance  of 
the  various  types  of  buildings  was  radically  changed,  the 
church,  though  still  of  great  importance,  being  rivaled  by  the 
luxurious  private  dwellings  of  merchant  princes,  churchmen, 
and  nobles.  •  Thus,  in  spite  of  retrospective  and  traditional 
elements,  it  was  the  novel  elements  which  predominated  in 
the  new  architectural  synthesis. 

Contrasts  with  medieval  architecture.  Compared  with  the 
medieval  architecture  which  preceded  it,  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture was  less  concerned  with  problems  of  structure  and 
more  with  those  of  pure  form.  As  in  the  case  of  Roman 
architecture,  the  forms  of  detail  were  sometimes  used  as 
trophies  of  classical  culture,  with  relative  indifference  to  their 
original  structural  functions.  The  forms  were  not  merely  ends 
in  themselves,  however,  but  means  for  a  rhythmical  subdi- 
vision of  space,  more  complex  and  more  varied  than  either 
ancient  or  medieval  times  had  known.  A  further  contrast 
between  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance,  though  one 
which  has  often  been  exaggerated,  lay  in  the  relation  of  the 
designer  to  his  work.  The  architect,  in  the  ancient  and  in 
the  modern  sense,  reappeared.  We  now  realize  that  in  both 
the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance  the  general  design  was 


346        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

controlled  by  a  single  mind,  and  that  in  both  periods  there 
were  sculptured  details  of  which  the  design  was  left  to  the 
initiative  of  individual  sculptors.  Unlike  the  medieval  master- 
builder,  however,  the  Renaissance  architect  did  not  himself 
work  on  the  scaffold,  whereas  he  did  dictate,  in  a  greater 
measure  than  his  predecessors,  the  form  of  many  uniform 
details. 

Centers  and  diffusion.  The  center  of  the  new  movement  was 
Italy,  where  the  forces  everywhere  at  work  had  their  effect 
earlier  than  in  countries  less  richly  endowed  with  the  heritage 
of  antiquity.  During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
Florence  was  the  intellectual  capital  of  the  peninsula,  as  well 
as  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  powers  in  Europe.  It  was 
in  Florence  that  the  Renaissance  in  architecture  had  its  birth, 
and  it  was  the  Florentine  school  which  dominated  the  style 
down  to  the  year  1500.  With  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  papal  Rome,  now  fully  recovered  from  the  exile  of 
the  popes  and  the  schism  of  the  church,  assumed  the  leader- 
ship which  it  retained  to  the  end  of  the  Renaissance  period. 
By  the  same  time  the  new  architectural  forms  had  been 
adopted,  with  characteristic  local  modifications,  throughout 
Italy,  and  had  begun  to  penetrate  France,  Germany,  and 
Spain.  In  these  countries  and  in  England,  where  the  introduc- 
tion came  still  later,  it  was  many  years  before  the  transition 
from  medieval  forms  was  effected.  Thus  the  phases  of 
Renaissance  architecture  in  different  lands  do  not  coincide  in 
time,  and,  outside  of  Italy,  forms  of  later  origin  sometimes 
mingle  with  those  of  truly  Renaissance  character.  Both  for 
these  reasons,  and  because  of  strongly  marked  national 
differences,  the  several  countries  may  best  be  considered 
successively. 

Italy.  The  soil  in  Italy  was  particularly  favorable  for  a 
revival  of  the  forms  of  classic  architecture.  The  remains  of 
ancient  buildings  existed  on  every  hand,  in  far  greater  com- 
pleteness than  they  do  to-day.  They  still  served,  as  they  had 
in  the  time  of  Constantine,  as  sources  from  which  not  only 
stone  and  lime  but  also  columns,  entablatures,  and  archivolts 
could  be  obtained  ready  made.  Partly  for  these  reasons, 
partly  because  of  racial  inheritance,  the  feeling  for  classical 
architecture  had  never  wholly  died  out  in  Italy,  and  Gothic 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


347 


forms  had  been  employed  only  with  radical  modifications  which 
brought  them  nearer  to  the  classic  spirit.  All  this  was 
especially  true  in  Florence,  which  prided  itself  on  direct  de- 
scent from  Etruria  and  Rome.  The  buildings  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries — the  Baptistry,  San  Miniato — are  so 
classical  in  their 
details  as  to  have 
been  described 
as  "proto- 
Renaissance." 
Even  during  the 
Gothic  period — • 
in  the  cathedral 
and  the  Loggia 
dei  Lanzi  — 
there  was  a  lar- 
geness of  scale 
and  of  interior 
space  which  is 
more  classic 
than  medieval. 
The  round  arch 
and  other  clas- 
sical details  and 
forms  of  orna- 
ment still  per- 
sisted. 

The  early  Re- 
naissance. Bru- 
nelleschi's  dome. 
It  involved  no 
break  with 

Florentine  medieval  traditions  when  Filippo  Brunelleschi 
(1379-1446)  made  his  proposal,  in  1406,  to  vault  the 
central  octagon  of  the  cathedral  of  Florence,  which  the 
builders  had  long  feared  to  attempt.  Although  he  had 
astonished  his  contemporaries  by  studying  and  drawing  the 
ancient  buildings  of  Rome,  there  was  little  in  his  solution  which 
was  not  medieval  in  inspiration,  except  the  boldness  of  span 
which  he  had  observed  in  the  Pantheon.  His  direct  prototype 


FIG.  189 — FLORENCE.   CATHEDRAL  FROM  THE 
SOUTHEAST 


348        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

was  the  dome  oft  he  baptistry  of  Florence,  also  octagonal, 
with  intermediate  ribs  on  each  face  and  arches  spanning 
between  them.  He  proposed  a  dome  in  two  shells  with 
segmental  arches  in  each  of  the  eight  faces,  and  ribs  with  iron 
anchors  supporting  the  inner  shell.  By  giving  a  steep  curve 

to  the  dome  he 
was  enabled  to 
construct  it,  as 
Byzantine  vaults 
had  been  con- 
structed, without 
centering.  The 
whole  was  raised 
on  a  high  drum 
with  circular 
windows,  and 
surmounted  by  a 
lantern — feat- 
ures in  them- 
selves not  new, 
but  carried  out 
on  a  larger  scale 
and  with  some- 
what more  classi- 
cal details  (Fig. 
189). 

Brunelleschi's 
other  works.  The 
first  true  monu- 

FIG.  IQO — FLORENCE.      INTERIOR"  OF   SAN  LORENZO       mentS  of  the  Re- 

naissance    were 

the  other  works  which  Brunelleschi  undertook  while  the 
dome  was  progressing.  In  these  from  the  beginning,  with 
no  period  of  transition  or  hesitancy,  appeared  the  classical 
forms  of  columns,  pilasters,  entablatures,  all  very  clearly 
understood,  though  used  with  a  freedom  like  that  of  late 
Roman  architecture.  In  front  of  the  Spedale  degli  Innocenti, 
the  foundling  hospital,  he  constructed  in  1421  a  portico  with 
circular  archivolts  descending  on  the  heads  of  Corinthian 
columns.  The  end  bays  are  enframed  by  pilasters  in  the 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


349 


manner  of  the  Roman  arch  order,  and  the  windows  of  the  upper 
story,  in  the  axis  of  each  bay,  have  architraves  and  pediments 
of  classical  form.  In  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  (begun  about 


FIG.    191. — FLORENCE.      PAZZI  CHAPEL 

1425)  Brunelleschi  reverted  to  the  type  of  the  early  Christian 
basilica,  using  a  wealth  of  classical  detail  (Fig.  190).  The  aisle 
walls  and  chapel  openings  are  treated  with  an  arch  order;  the 
nave  arches  descend  on  fragments  of  entablature  which  re- 
spond to  the  entablature  in  the  aisle.  The  aisles  are  covered 


350        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


with  domical  vaults  and  the  crossing  with  a  dome  on  penden- 
tives.  The  Pazzi  chapel  at  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  like 
the  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo  (both  from  about  1429),  has  a 
membering  of  the  wall  by  pilasters  and  entablatures  (Fig.  191). 
They  carry  pendentives  and  a  dome,  which,  however,  is 

constructed 
like  the  apse 
vaults  of  a 
Gothic  church. 
In  the  portico 
before  the 
chapel  reap- 
pears for  the 
first  time  the 
colonnade  with 
a  horizontal 
entablature. 
Another  of 
Brunelleschi's 
designs,  Santa 
Maria  degli 
Angeli  (1434), 
is  the  first 
building  of 
modern  archi- 
tecture to  fol- 
low the  mode 
of  composition 
about  a  central 
vertical  axis,  so 
common  in  late 
Roman  and 

early  medieval  times  (Fig.  207).  It  initiates  the  long  series 
of  experiments  in  the  combination  of  different  forms  of  in- 
terior space,  free  from  practical  or  liturgical  restrictions. 

Palace  designs.  Brunelleschi's  palace  designs  are  relatively 
less  classical,  except  in  their  strict  balance  and  the  vertical 
alignment  of  their  windows.  His  Palazzo  Pitti  has  a  range 
of  vast  rusticated  arches  reminiscent  of  the  Roman  aqueducts. 
The  typical  palace  of  the  time  is  the  Palazzo  Medici  (now 


FIG.    192 — FLORENCE.      PALAZZO    MEDICI-RICCARDI 


Palazzo  Riccardi)  by  Michelozzo,  begun  in  1444  (Fig.  192). 
Its  unbroken  rusticated  wall  with  windows  of  paired  arches 
resting  on  colonnettes  are  features  of  medieval  derivation, 
whereas  the  emphasis  laid  on  the  horizontal  divisions  and  the 
details  of  the 
colonnettes  and 
the  cornice  are 
inspired  by  an- 
tiquity. 

Albert*.  A 
more  strictly 
classical  t  e  n  - 
dency  was  intro- 
duced by  Leon 
Battista  Alberti 
(1404-72),  a 
gifted  Floren- 
tine humanist, 
long  in  exile.  In 
his  paganization 
of  the  church  of 
San  Francesco 
at  Rimini  (1447) 
he  adopted,  for 
the  flank,  a  mas- 
sive range  of 
classic  piers  and 
arches,  for  the 

°^  .    '  FIG.    193 — FLORENCE.      PALAZZO    RUCELLAI 

motive  of  a 
Roman  tri- 
umphal arch  with  engaged  columns  and  a  broken  entab- 
lature. He  also  projected,  as  a  termination  for  the  build- 
ing, a  circular  domed  room  of  the  proportions  of  the 
Pantheon,  a  form  which  he  later  emphasized  in  the  church 
of  the  Annunziata  in  Florence  (1451).  For  the  facade  of  the 
Palazzo  Rucellai  in  Florence  (1451-55)  he  imitated  for  the 
first  time  the  superposed  engaged  orders  of  the  Tabularium 
and  the  Roman  amphitheaters  (Fig.  193).  Pilasters  and 
entablatures  were  applied  to  the  typical  rusticated  wall  with 


352        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

grouped  windows.  The  main  cornice  was  still  strongly 
emphasized  in  relation  to  those  between  the  stories.  Another 
time-honored  scheme  which  Alberti  revived  was  the  Greek- 
cross  plan,  with  four  equal  arms,  in  the  church  of  San  Sebas- 
tiano  at  Mantua  (1459).  In  Sant'  Andrea  at  Mantua,  begun  in 
1472,  he  again  made  use  of  the  triumphal  arch  motive,  not 
only  in  the  porch,  but  also  on  the  interior  walls  of  the  nave, 


FIG.    194 — MANTUA.      SANT     ANDREA.      INTERIOR 

where  a  rhythmic  alternation  of  broad  arched  chapels  and 
narrow  bays  bordered  by  pilasters  was  introduced  (Fig.  194). 
For  the  first  time  in  a  Renaissance  church  the  nave  itself  was 
vaulted  in  a  classical  manner,  with  an  unbroken  coffered 
barrel  vault.  First  in  modern  times  also  were  Alberti's 
writings  on  architecture,  which  have  fundamentally  influenced 
both  theory  and  practice  even  to  the  present  day. 

Other  Florentines.  The  followers  of  Brunelleschi  and  Alberti 
in  Florence — Simone  del  Pollaiuolo,  called  Cronaca,  Giuliano 
da  San  Gallo  and  his  brother  Antonio,  with  many  others — 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


353 


employed  the  new  classical  forms  expertly,  but  without  con- 
tributing many  elements  which  were  new.  They  were 
occupied  rather  with  making  new  combinations  with  the 
elements  already  created.  Thus  in  the  octagonal  sacristy  of 
Santo  Spirito  in  Florence,  by  Giuliano  da  San  Gallo  and 


FIG.    195 — THE  CERTOSA  NEAR  PAVIA..     FACADE 

Cronaca  (1489-96),  a  rhythmical  grouping  is  introduced  in  a 
building  of  the  centrally  balanced  type,  by  an  alternation  of 
niches  and  shallow  recesses.  Giuliano  created  the  first  of 
the  monumental  country  villas,  the  Villa  Poggio  at  Cajano 
(1485),  with  a  great  barrel-vaulted  hall  which  was  then  a 
novel  feature  in  domestic  architecture.  On  the  exterior  this 
came  to  expression  through  a  pedimented  portico  imitating 
the  classic  temple  front,  though  not  projecting  before  the  plane 
of  the  wall.  In  Cronaca's  church  of  San  Francesco  al  Monte 
in  Florence  (1487)  the  tendency  to  rhythmical  grouping  led 
to  an  alternation  of  triangular  and  segmental  pediments  in 
the  enframements  of  the  clerestory  windows. 


354        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Other  schools.  Lombardy.  Outside  of  Tuscany,  except  for 
isolated  works  of  the  Florentine  school,  the  new  forms  were 
only  adopted  gradually  after  the  lapse  of  some  time,  and  then 
often  for  their  more  superficial  decorative  qualities.  In  north 
Italy,  smallness  of  scale,  freedom  in  modifying  the  forms  and 
proportions  of  the  orders,  and  richness  of  sculptured  orna- 


FIG.    196 — VENICE.      PALAZZO   VENDRAMINI 


mentation  are  the  outstanding  features.  In  Lombardy,  where 
the  Florentine  details  first  found  a  wide  application,  they 
remained  for  the  most  part,  throughout  the  fifteenth  century, 
a  mere  clothing  for  medieval  dispositions.  In  the  facade  of 
the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  begun  probably  in  1493,  the  details  are 
of  a  lavishness  and  multiplicity  elsewhere  unequaled,  smother- 
ing the  architectonic  outlines  (Fig.  195).  About  1490  began 
a  change,  under  the  leadership  of  Donate  Bramante  (1444- 
1514).  Inspired  by  the  works  of  Brunelleschi  and  Alberti, 
he  took  up  the  main  thread  of  development.  In  the  sacristy 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


355 


of  Santa  Maria  near  San  Satire  in  Milan  and  other  churches 
he  made  important  contributions  to  the  problem  of  buildings 
composed  about  a  central  axis.  At  Abbiate  Grasso  (1497) 
he  prefixed  to  the  church  a  great  arched  porch,  recalling  an 
ancient  exedra.  It  was  supported  on  pilasters  which  here, 
for  the  first  time, 
were  coupled  or 
grouped  in  pairs. 

Venice.  Venice 
scarcely  took  up 
the  new  forms  be- 
fore 1470,  when 
the  family  of 
architects  called 
Lombardi  began 
their  work  there. 
In  general  their 
work  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  local 
Byzantine  and 
Gothic  motives 
into  pseudo-classic 
forms,  carried  out 
with  rich  marble 
incrustation.  The 
Palazzo  Vendra- 
mmi'(i48i)  is  per- 
haps its  best  repre- 
sentative  (Fig. 
196).  As  in  the 
Palazzo  Ruccllai, 
the  facade  is  dec- 
orated with  superposed  orders;  but  here  engaged  columns, 
resting  on  pedestals  in  the  lower  stories,  are  elements  of  closer 
similarity  to  ancient  examples.  On  the  other  hand  the  arches 
are  subdivided  by  tracery,  which  is  essentially  medieval  in 
spite  of  its  classic  details.  As  usual  in  Venice,  the  retention 
of  a  threefold  subdivision  of  the  width  results  in  a  com- 
plicated rhythmical  grouping  of  the  supports. 

Rome.     Rome  first  experienced  an  artistic  revival  during 


FIG.    197 — ROME.      LOGGIA  OF  THE  CHURCH   OF 
SAN    MARCO 


Copyright  by  the  American  Architect  and  Building  News  Co. 

FIG.  198— ROME.    "TEMPIETTO"  AT  SAN  PIETRO  IN  MONTORIO 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


357 


the  papacy  of  the  humanist,  Nicholas  V.  (1447-55).  He  began 
a  rebuilding  of  the  Vatican  and  proposed  to  replace  the 
crumbling  basilica  of  Saint  Peter  by  a  new  edifice.  The  monu- 
ments which  followed,  such  as  the  Palazzo  Venezia  and  the 
vestibule  of  the  church  of  San  Marco  (Fig.  197),  although  they 
retain  medieval  elements,  include  also  the  most  literal  repro- 
ductions of  the  antique  yet  attempted.  Their  superposed 


FIG.    199 — ROME.      SAINT   PETER  S.      INTERIOR 

porticoes  in  the  Roman  arch  order  successfully  imitate 
Roman  examples  in  their  proportions  as  well  as  in  their  break- 
ing of  the  entablatures  and  pedestals  at  each  engaged  column. 
In  the  Palazzo  Cancelleria  (1486-95),  where  the  system  of  the 
Palazzo  Rucellai,  with  its  slighter  relief,  was  followed,  elements 
of  novelty  were  introduced.  A  continuous  alternation  of  wide 
and  narrow  spaces  between  the  pilasters — the  "rhythmical 


358        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

bay"  which  Albert!  had  employed  in  an  interior — was  em- 
ployed on  the  fagade,  and  terminal  masses  of  slight  projection, 
"end  pavilions,"  appear  for  the  first  time. 

The  "High  Renaissance."  Bramante.  The  second,  mature 
period  of  the  Renaissance,  the  "High  Renaissance"  as  it  is 
sometimes  termed,  began  at  Rome  with  the  papacy  of  Julius 
II.  (1503-13)  and  Leo  X.  (1513-21).  Their  lavish  court  and 


FIG.   200 — ROME.      PALACE  OF   RAPHAEL.       (RESTORED   BY  HOFFMANN) 

great  undertakings  attracted  to  the  city  the  finest  talent  of 
all  Italy,  including  Bramante,  Raphael,  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
and  Michelangelo.  Bramante  was  the  moving  spirit  in  the 
creation  of  the  new  Roman  school  of  architecture,  as  Brunelles- 
chi  had  been  of  the  Florentine  school.  In  his  first  attested 
design  in  Rome,  the  shrine  at  the  place  of  Saint  Peter's  martyr- 
dom, Bramante  outvied  all  his  predecessors  in  classical  ardor, 
by  adopting  the  scheme  of  a  Roman  circular  temple  with 
its  peristyle  (Fig.  198).  This  so-called  "Tempietto,"  at  the 
church  of  San  Pietro  in  Montorio,  is  surmounted  by  a  dome  on 
a  tall  drum,  and  was  intended  to  be  surrounded  by  a  circular 
colonnaded  court. 

Bramante' s  later  works.     Bramante  was  soon  intrusted  with 
the  two  most  ambitious  schemes  of  Julius,  the  extension  of  the 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE         359 

Vatican  and  the  rebuilding  of  Saint  Peter's,  so  long  proposed. 
To  unite  the  Vatican  with  the  Belvedere  he  designed  a  court 
almost  a  thousand  feet  in  length,  surrounded  by  superposed 
galleries  with  the  rhythmical  triumphal-arch  motive,  and 
terminated  by  a  vast  semicircular  niche  like  those  of  the 
Roman  thermae 
(Fig.  222).  The 
rise  of  the 
ground  within 
the  court  was 
given  a  novel 
treatment  by 
high  terrace 
walls  and  balus- 
traded  flights  of 
steps.  In  the 
new  Saint  Pe- 
ter's Bramante 
thought  less  of 
meeting  tradi- 
tional liturgical 
requirements 
than  of  creating 
a  monument  to 
the  glory  of 
God,  the  found- 
er,  and  the 
church.  For 
this  purpose  he 
chose  his  favor- 
ite form  of  the 
centrally  composed  building,  magnified  and  elaborated.  He 
proposed,  in  the  words  of  his  own  metaphor,  to  raise  the 
Pantheon  above  the  vaults  of  the  Basilica  of  Maxentius  (Fig. 
199).  His  studies  for  the  building  involved  new  solutions  of 
a  great  number  of  current  problems,  and  were  a  school  for  the 
whole  younger  generation  of  architects.  Toward  the  end  of 
his  life  he  also  gave  new  suggestions  for  palace  design  in  the 
projected  building  for  the  papal  courts  of  justice,  with  its 
gigantic  rusticated  blocks  in  the  ground  story. 
'3 


FIG.   2OI— ROME. 


LOGGIA   OF   THE  VILLA  MADAMA. 
INTERIOR 


360        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Raphael  and  Peruzzi.  The  principal  followers  of  Bramante, 
although  strongly  influenced,  likewise  made  new  contributions 
to  the  general  development.  Raphael  (1483-1520),  Bra- 
mante's  nephew  and  protege,  embodied  some  of  Bramante's 


FIG.    2O2 — ROME.       PALAZZO   DELL1   AQUILA.      (RESTORED   BY   GEYMULLER) 


ideas  for  Saint  Peter's  in  the  little  Chigi  chapel  at  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Popolo.  His  own  palace  (Fig.  200),  executed 
with  Bramante's  aid,  had  the  ground  story  treated  as  a  heavy 
rusticated  basement,  and  the  principal  story — the  piano  nobile 
— emphasized  by  coupled  engaged  columns.  On  Bramante's 


death  in  1514  Raphael  succeeded  to  the  architectural  dictator- 
ship. In  executing  the  loggias  of  the  Court  of  San  Damaso  at 
the  Vatican,  he  revived  the  stuccoed  decorations  of  the  Roman 
interiors,  then  recently  discovered.  Thus  arose  the  graceful 
compositions  of  leafage,  figures,  and  small  medallions  imitated 
by  his  pupils  at  the  Villa  Madama  (Fig.  201)  and  elsewhere. 
In  the  Palazzo  dell'  Aquila  similar  decorations  were  applied  to 
a  facade,  in  which  there  was  also  a  rich  alternation  of  niches 
and  pedimented  tabernacles  (Fig.  202).  The  large  engaged 
column,  there  restricted  to  the  shop  fronts  of  the  basement 
story,  disappears  entirely  in  Raphael's  design  for  the  Palazzo 
Pandolfini  in  Florence.  With  its  tabernacles  relieved  against 
a  stuccoed  wall  having  angle  quoins,  this  was  the  model  for 
many  later  Roman  palaces.  The  Villa  Madama,  begun  from 
Raphael's  designs  and  left  unfinished,  had  for  the  first  time  an 
intimate  architectural  connection  between  house  and  gardens. 
This  was  achieved  not  only  by  elaborate  axial  relationships, 
but  by  terraces,  stairs,  and  niches  recalling  the  Villa  of  Hadrian 
at  Tivoli.  Peruzzi,  who  outlived  the  youthful  Raphael  by 
sixteen  years,  continued  the  development  in  the  direction  of 
greater  freedom  in  plan  and  in  facade.  The  Villa  Farnesina, 
which  seems  probably  to  be  his  design,  has  end  pavilions 
suggested  by  those  of  the  Cancelleria,  but  projecting  two  bays, 
so  as  to  inclose  a  U-shaped  court.  His  plan  for  the  two 
palaces  for  the  Massimi  in  Rome  (1529),  on  an  irregular  site, 
shows  a  remarkable  facility  in  the  adaptation  of  classical 
elements  (Fig.  203).  In  one  the  facade  is  curved  to  follow  the 
line  of  the  street,  and  a  multitude  of  consoles  in  the  enframe- 
ment  of  windows  and  doors  begin  to  relieve  the  strictly  geo- 
metrical lines  of  earlier  architectural  forms.  All  these 
tendencies  find  their  strongest  expression  in  Michelangelo, 
and  doubtless  depend,  in  large  measure,  on  his  earliest  archi- 
tectural designs,  which  had  been  for  the  facade  of  San  Lorenzo 
in  Florence  (1514)  and  for  the  Medici  chapel  there  (1521-29, 
Fig.  204).  These,  however,  with  his  other  buildings,  form 
the  point  of  departure  of  the  following  phase  of  style,  the 
baroque,  and  thus  must  be  discussed  later. 

Other  schools.  Venetia.  The  architects  of  the  High  Renais- 
sance in  the  rest  of  Italy  took  their  inspiration  from  Rome,  as 
those  of  the  early  Renaissance  had  from  Florence.  The 


362        A  HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

grammar  of  classical  forms  was  now  everywhere  understood, 
and  thus  local  differences  are  less  marked,  but  characteristic 
schools  nevertheless  existed.  Most  notable  of  these  was  that 
of  Venetia,  headed  by  two  other  disciples  of  Bramante, 
Sanmicheli  (1484-1559)  and  Sansovino  (1486-1570).  These 
men  followed  the  more  robust  use  of  the  orders  in  the  work  of 


FIG.   2O3 — ROME.      MASSIMI   PALACES.      PLAN 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE         363 

Bramante  and  Raphael.  Thus  in  Sanmicheli's  Palazzo  Pom- 
pei  in  Verona  (1530)  and  Sansovino's  Palazzo  Cornaro  della 
Ca'  Grande  in  Venice  (1530),  we  have  a  reminiscence  of 
Raphael's  own  palace.  Sanmicheli  initiated  a  long  series  of 
designs  of  a  still  more  rugged  character  by  his  notable  city 
gates  for  Verona  (1533  ff.),  with  rusticated  columns  which 


FIG.  204 — FLORENCE.   MEDICI  CHAPEL  AT  SAN  LORENZO 

are  the  embodiment  of  military  strength.  In  the  Palazzo 
Grimani  at  Venice  (Fig.  205)  he  restudied  the  scheme  of  the 
earlier  Palazzo  Vcndramini,  eliminating  the  medieval  sur- 
vivals and  endowing  all  the  forms  with  a  truly  classical  spirit. 
Sansovino  took  the  Tabularium  of  the  Capitol  in  Rome  as 
his  model  for  the  Library  of  Saint  Mark  (Fig.  206),  which  gives 
the  effect  of  an  open  arcade  in  two  stories.  The  employment 
of  subordinate  engaged  columns  to  support  the  imposts  of  the 


364        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

upper  story,  and  the  wealth  of  ornamental  sculpture,  are 
features  of  this  extreme  yet  characteristic  product  of  the 
Renaissance. 

Types  of  buildings.  Churches.  The  longitudinal  type.  As 
strands  in  the  general  tendency  in  matters  of  style  ran  the 
individual  developments  of  single  types  of  buildings,  which 


FIG.    205 — VENICE.      PALAZZO   GRIMANI 

offer  some  further  points  of  importance.  The  churches  here 
fall  into  two  groups,  those  composed  about  a  longitudinal 
axis  and  those  composed  about  a  central  axis.  It  was  the 
former  of  these  groups  which  represented  the  continuance  of 
medieval  tradition  and  thus  offered  less  of  novelty.  Brunelles- 
chi  contributed  to  it  by  reviving  the  basilican  scheme  of 
Constantino's  day,  with  a  flat  ceiling  in  the  nave  and  the 
addition  of  domical  vaults  over  the  aisle  bays.  Although  in 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


365 


San  Lorenzo  (1425)  the  T-shaped  plan  of  the  first  basilicas 
was  adhered  to,  in  Santo  Spirito  (1435)  the  full  Latin  cross 
of  the  Middle  Ages  was  adopted,  with  square  ends  to  the  arms 
and  the  aisles  carried  completely  around  them.  A  vaulting 
of  the  nave  with  a  barrel  vault,  then  considered  the  most 


FIG.   2O6 — VENICE.     LIBRARY   OF   SAINT   MARK 

classical,  was  possible  only  with  suppression  of  the  aisles.  A 
membering  of  the  nave  walls  and  a  richer  spatial  effect  was 
furnished  in  such  cases  by  lateral  chapels.  This  was  the  case 
in  Brunelleschi's  church  of  the  Badia  at  Fiesole,  completed  in 
1463,  where  the  chapels  were  all  alike,  and  in  Alberti's  Sant' 
Andrea  at  Mantua,  which  initiated  the  rhythmical  system  of 
piers.  In  San  Salvatore  in  Venice  (1506)  this  rhythmical 
scheme  was  applied  to  a  three-aisled  church  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  vaulting  scheme  of  Saint  Mark's.  Already  in  these 


366        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

churches  appeared  the  characteristic  tendency  of  the  later 
long-naved  churches.  This  was  toward  a  development  of 
the  crossing,  choir,  and  transepts  on  the  lines  of  a  building  of 
central  type  with  equal  arms. 

Basilican  facades.  The  facades  of  the  basilican  churches 
also  presented  a  problem.  Those  of  the  earliest  architects 
remained  in  crude  brickwork  awaiting  some  ambitious  com- 
pletion. Alberti  was  the  one  who  established  the  general 
type:  an  order  or  superposed  orders,  with  the  doors  and 
windowis  in  the  intervals.  Usually  there  was  a  pediment  and 
often  tl^ere  were  great  volutes  opposite  the  aisle  roofs,  uniting 
the  aisles  with  the  clerestory.  In  some  cases  an  arcaded 
portico  was  prefixed,  with  the  inevitable  Roman  arch  order. 

Churches  of  the  central  type.  The  church  composed  on  a 
central  axis  was  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  problem  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance  (Fig.  207).  The  solutions  were  based 
either  on  a  central  octagon  with  an  octagonal  dome  or  cloister 
vault,  or  on  a  square  central  space  with  a  dome  on  pendentives. 
In  the  first  example — Brunelleschi's  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli 
(1434) — the  eight  subordinate  spaces  are  of  equal  importance. 
They  themselves  have  minor  elements  in  the  form  of  niches, 
which  are  connected  by  unimportant  doors.  Similar  in  their 
co-ordination  of  the  subordinate  spaces  are  the  churches  of 
Greek  cross  type,  beginning  with  Alberti's  San  Sebastiano 
(1459)  .and  finding  their  ultimate  expression  in  churches  by 
the  elder  San  Gallo.  Beginning  with  the  sacristies  by  San 
Gallo  and  by  Bramante,  however,  there  is  usually  an  alterna- 
tion in  the  subordinate  spaces,  which  tend  to  become  more 
elaborate,  but  in  general  have  no  connection  with  one  another 
except  through  the  central  space.  An  intermediate  between 
the  square  and  octagonal  schemes  was  created  by  Bramante's 
cutting  off  the  corners  below  the  pendentives  in  the  crossing 
of  Saint  Peter's.  His  further  innovations  were  anticipated 
somewhat  in  manuscript  studies  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  where 
he  attempted  to  canvass  systematically  all  possible  combina- 
tions of  domes  and  subordinate  spaces.  Here  Leonardo 
progressed  to  centrally  composed  buildings  of  the  second 
degree,  that  is,  to  groups  in  which  the  subordinate  spaces  are 
themselves  composed  of  minor  features  about  a  central  axis. 
It  was  a  still  more  elaborate  composition  of  this  sort  which 


ROME     STPETB& 
BRAMANTE&  FIRST 
STUDY 


FIG     207— THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    RENAISSANCE   CHURCHES    OF 
CENTRAL    TYPE 


3  68        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Bramante  undertook  in  Saint  Peter's.  Between  the  four  arms 
of  a  great  Greek  cross  he  placed  four  smaller  Greek  crosses 
opening  into  the  arms  of  the  larger  one,  and  having  themselves 
a  minor  zone  of  niches.  Although  a  means  of  circulation 
about  the  central  space  was  incidentally  provided,  it  was  not 
in  an  aisle  of  co-ordinated  bays,  but  involved  periodic  emer- 
gence into  the  arms  of  the  great  cross.  The  variety  of  spatial 
effects  was  thus  greatly  increased,  while  each  portion  of  the 
church  retained  a  strong  individual  unity. 

Palaces.  The  characteristic  problem  of  the  Renaissance  in 
domestic  architecture  was  the  town  palace  of  the  merchant 
prince,  the  petty  tyrant,  or  the  dignitary  of  the  church.  Such  a 
building  had  to  rise  in  several  stories  on  a  limited  site,  bounded 
by  one  or  more  streets  and  usually  by  party  walls,  and  had  to 
offer  security  against  the  turbulent  factions  of  the  city.  Like 
its  predecessors  of  the  medieval  towns,  it  had  thus  to  open 
about  a  court,  and  to  be  closed  on  the  exterior.  In  the  typical 
plan  the  court  was  rectangular,  with  surrounding  arcades 
which  gave  a  covered  communication  at  least  between  the 
rooms  of  the  ground  story.  In  general,  no  one  of  the  rooms 
greatly  surpassed  the  others  in  size  and  importance,  although 
toward  the  end  of  the  period  there  was  a  tendency  to  introduce 
a  principal  hall  or  gallery.  The  facade  even  then  took  no 
cognizance  of  the  internal  divisions  but  retained  a  uniform 
spacing  of  the  axes.  All  these  qualities  are  summarized  in  the 
largest  of  the  Roman  palaces,  the  Palazzo  Farnese  by  Antonio 
da  San  Gallo  the  younger  (c.  1520-80).  Without  embodying 
any  radical  innovations,  it  had  a  wide  influence  in  the  diffusion 
of  the  type  (Figs.  208,  209).  It  stands  free  on  all  sides,  with 
passages  to  the  court  at  the  center  of  each  face,  the  principal 
one  having  a  barrel  vault  with  colonnaded  aisles.  The  square 
court  itself  has  the  scheme  of  the  Colosseum  in  three  stories, 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  the  two  lower  ones  with  the  arch 
order,  the  upper  one  with  pilasters  and  pedimented  windows. 
On  the  facade  the  scheme  of  Raphael's  Palazzo  Pandolfini  was 
adopted,  but  with  an  additional  story  and  a  strong  emphasis 
on  the  central  axis.  In  the  Roman  palaces  from  the  time  of 
Bramante  the  stories  of  minor  importance  began  to  secure 
recognition  in  the  facade.  A  low  uppermost  story  for  the 
servants  was  given  small  windows  beneath  the  entablature 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


369 


of  the  upper  order,  as  in  the  Cancelleria,  or  in  the  frieze  of 
the  main  cornice,  as  in  the  Farnesina.  In  stories  of  which 
the  full  height  was  needed  only  for  certain  larger  rooms,  it 
became  customary  to  halve  the  height  for  the  smaller  rooms, 
securing  over  them  a  half  story  or  mezzanine.  The  windows 
of  such  mezzanines,  which  first  appear,  much  subordinated, 


FIG.    208 — ROME.      PALAZZO   FARNESE 


in  the  palaces  of  Raphael,  tended  to  attain  increasing  inde- 
pendence. In  Venice,  as  we  have  seen,  the  inherited  palace 
type  was  an  exception  to  the  rule  which  prevailed  elsewhere. 
Instead  of  a  monumental  court  there  was  a  large  principal 
room  in  the  center  of  the  front,  extending  deep  into  the 
building.  At  the  sides  were  minor  suites,  and  the  threefold 
division  was  characteristically  expressed  on  the  facade. 

Villas.  The  increasing  security  of  the  country  permitted, 
even  in  the  early  days  of  the  Renaissance,  the  erection  of  villas 
outside  the  city  walls.  The  earliest  of  these,  near  Florence, 
the  Villa  Carregi  by  Michelozzo,  is  still  somewhat  irregular 


370        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

in  plan,  but  has  projecting  loggias  which  are  suggestive  of 
later  developments  in  the  union  of  house  and  garden.  Such 
projections,  however,  were  relatively  infrequent.  The  house 
tended  to  remain  a  unity  by  itself,  as  at  Cajano,  and  the 
gardens  were  laid  out  without  much  reference  to  the  axis  of 
the  building.  Only  at  the  end  of  the  period,  in  the  Villa 
Madama,  does  the  architectural  scheme  tend  to  assert  itself 
also  in  the  garden,  in  the  manner  so  characteristic  of  the  later, 
baroque  villas. 

PMic  buildings.  Some  further  important  types  were  the 
municipal  palaces  and  the  public  hospitals.  An  open  loggia 
on  the  exterior,  as  in  Brunelleschi's  Spedale  degli  Innocenti, 
was  the  symbol  that  such  buildings  belonged  to  the  public.  An 
early  Renaissance  example  outside  of  Florence  is  the  Loggia 
del  Consiglio  at  Verona,  attributed  to  Fra  Giocondo  (1476). 
It  has  arches  descending  on  small  columns,  and  an  upper 
story  of  typical  north  Italian  richness  of  detail.  In  the 
Palazzo  Comunale  at  Brescia  a  similar  scheme  is  realized  with 
more  classical  forms,  the  arch  order  with  projecting  half- 
columns  below,  a  second  story  with  pilasters  and  tabernacle- 
like  window  enframements.  The  series  really  includes  the 
library  in  Venice  (Fig.  206),  where  the  upper  story  is  also 
arcaded.  A  final  solution,  in  which  open  loggias  in  two  stories 
completely  surround  the  building — Palladio's  "Basilica"  at 
Vicenza  (Fig.  225) — stands  at  the  threshold  of  the  following 
period  (1549)- 

f  Town  planning.  The  town  planning  of  the  Renaissance  was 
limited  for  the  most  part  to  the  leveling  and  straightening  of 
streets  in  existing  towns,  with  the  sweeping  away  of  booths  and 
minor  constructions  which  encumbered  the  surroundings  of 
churches  and  public  buildings.  Open  squares  before  important 
new  buildings,  which  would  permit  an  appreciation  of  their 
symmetry,  were  early  desired,  but  were  obtained  in  few 
instances.  Where  a  square  was  bordered  by  porticoes  these 
were  kept  distinct,  and  were  not  continuous  as  they  had  been 
in  Hellenistic  and  late  Roman  times.  The  buildings  them- 
selves formed  the  unities,  and  not  the  square.  In  the  rare 
cases  where  new  towns  or  quarters  were  to  be  laid  out, 
regularity  and  symmetry  were  preferred.  The  civic  group 
at  Pienza  (1460-63)  is  the  most  notable  of  the  schemes  which 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE         371 


came  to  execution.  Here  the  episcopal  palace  and  the  palace 
of  the  Piccolomini  balance  on  either  side  of  the  cathedral 
piazza.,  which  has  its  sides  converging  toward  the  spectator, 
as  in  some  of  the  most  famous  of  the  baroque  squares. 

Individual  forms.  The  forms  of  Renaissance  architecture 
(Figs.  210,  211),  although  inspired  by  those  of  Rome,  were 
no  more  literal 
imitations  of  them 
than  the  Roman 
forms  themselves 
had  been  imita- 
tions of  Greek 
forms.  Partly  be- 
cause of  medieval 
survivals,  partly 
because  of  inade- 
quate knowledge 
of  antiquity, 
partly  even  in 
criticism  of  the 
antique,  the  archi- 
tects of  the  Re- 
naissance modified 
the  classical  forms 
so  that  they  are 
unmistakably 
theirs.  In  simpler 
buildings,  to  be 
sure,  there  was 
sometimes  scarce- 
ly a  detail  which 
would  betray  the 
dependence  of  the 
period  on  Rome. 
The  facade  of  the 

Palazzo  Pitti  might  seem  suggested  merely  by  material  and 
function.  In  later  and  richer  buildings  there  is  still  always 
some  nuance,  even  aside  from  the  fresh  combinations,  in  which 
is  visible  the  originality  of  the  Renaissance. 

Walls.    The  continuous  wall  received  much  characteristic 


FIG.  209 — ROME.      PALAZZO   FARNESE.      PLAN 


372        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

treatment  both  in  the  early  and  in  the  High  Renaissance. 
During  the  early  phase  the  usual  method  was  that  of  rustica- 
tion— an  artistic  modification  of  the  medieval  practice  of 
leaving  the  stones  quarry-faced,  with  merely  the  joints 
dressed.  In  the  Palazzo  Pitti  there  is  a  gradation  in  the 
projection  of  the  stones  in  successive  stories,  the  lower  ones 
reaching  in  extreme  cases  a  projection  of  over  two  feet.  In 
the  Palazzo  Medici  (Riccardi)  there  is  a  more  pronounced 
gradation,  with  rough  blocks  in  the  lower  story,  rectangular 
grooving,  like  that  of  some  Roman  examples,  in  the  inter- 
mediate story,  and  smooth  ashlar  in  the  upper  story  (Fig. 
192) — a  system  considerably  imitated  in  later  Florentine 
structures.  The  buildings  mentioned  have  courses  of  irregu- 
lar height  and  stones  of  differing  lengths.  Not  until  toward 
1500,  in  the  Cancelleria  and  other  buildings  of  the  time,  was 
a  perfectly  uniform  system  of  jointing  adopted.  Meanwhile 
another  system  of  exterior  wall  treatment  had  been  gaining 
ground,  the  use  of  stucco  for  the  main  surface,  as  it  had  been 
used  from  the  beginning  in  interiors.  Against  this  stuccoed 
surface  was  contrasted  the  stonework  about  the  openings,  and, 
later,  tiers  of  rusticated  blocks  or  quoins  at  the  angles  of  the 
building.  In  the  Palazzo  Pandolfini  and  the  Palazzo  Farnese 
angle  quoins  were  made  of  alternating  lengths,  bonding  into 
the  wall.  In  late  works  of  Raphael  and  his  school  the  stucco 
itself  was  modeled  into  festoons  and  medallions,  still  subordi- 
nate, however,  to  the  window  enframements. 

Moldings.  As  in  Roman  architecture,  the  foot  and  the 
crown  of  the  wall,  as  well  as  minor  divisions,  were  marked  by 
horizontal  moldings.  The  machicolated  and  battlemented 
cornices  of  the  Middle  Ages  gave  place  to  cornices  with  a  bed 
molding,  corona,  and  cyma  on  Corinthian  lines  (Fig.  211). 
Between  the  stories  were  carried  string-courses,  likewise  made 
up  of  classical  elements.  As  time  went  on  there  was  an 
increasing  approximation  to  the  full  membering^of  the  orders. 
Thus,  whereas  the  Palazzo  Medici  has  a  cornice  only,  the 
Palazzo  Strozzi  (1489-1507)  has  also  a  frieze,  and  many  later 
buildings,  even  without  columns  or  pilasters,  have  a  full 
entablature  of  classic  type.  In  the  same  way  it  became 
customary  to  employ  in  the  arch  order,  in  tabernacle  windows, 
and  elsewhere,  a  pedestal  with  its  own  cap  and  base  moldings, 


FIG.    210 — EARLY  RENAISSANCE  DETAILS.      (AFTER  GROMORT) 

I.  Cornice  of  the  Palazzo  Medici  (Riccardi),  Florence.  3.  Cornice  of  the  Palazzo 
Strozzi,  Florence.  3.  Faience  medallion  by  Delia  Robbia.  4.  Flagstaff  bracket  from 
Palazzo  del  Magninco,  Siena.  5,  6.  Capitals  from  the  porch  of  the  Cathedral  at  Spoleto. 
7.  Lantern  from  the  Palazzo  Strozzi,  Florence.  8.  Capital  and  entablature  from  a  tomb 
in  the  Badia,  Florence.  9.  Window  from  the  Palazzo  Strozzi,  Florence,  10.  Cornice  of 
the  Palazzo  Pitti,  Florence. 


374        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

like  those  in  the  upper  stories  of  the  Colosseum.  The  profiles 
of  individual  moldings  increase  in  delicacy  of  line  and  truth 
to  antique  principles  until  in  the  works  of  Raphael  and 
Peruzzi  there  is  a  refinement  suggestive  of  Greek  models. 

Openings.  The  openings  at  first  were  predominantly 
arched.  Medieval  traditions  preserved  a  strong  influence  in 
the  retention  of  a  ring  of  deep  voussoirs,  the  sinking  of  the 
profile  in  the  wall,  and  the  persistence  of  a  central  colonnette 
with  tracery-like  arches  (Fig.  210).  In  walls  of  stucco  and 
in  interiors,  however,  the  projecting  classical  architrave  early 
asserted  itself,  and  rectangular  and  circular-headed  windows 
without  subdivisions  made  their  appearance.  A  more  elabo- 
rate treatment,  which  was  destined  to  become  normal,  was  the 
enframement  of  openings  by  an  order,  often  with  a  pediment. 
This  had  been  revived  during  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  baptistry 
of  Florence  and  was  employed  by  Brunelleschi  in  the  doors  of 
the  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo.  For  its  use  about  a  window  or 
niche,  the  tabernacles  of  the  interior  of  the  Pantheon,  with 
their  common  pedestal,  gave  the  model  followed  in  the  Palazzo 
Pandolfini  and  others  of  its  type  (Fig.  211).  The  use  of  ears 
on  an  architrave  began  with  Raphael,  and  consoles  to  support 
the  cornice  in  doors  and  windows  came  with  Michelangelo 
and  Peruzzi. 

The  orders.  The  men  of  the  Renaissance  distinguished 
five  orders,  elaborating  the  vague  suggestions  of  Vitruvius 
regarding  an  Etruscan  or  "Tuscan"  and  a  composite  order. 
The  favorite  order  of  the  early  Renaissance  was  the  Corinthian. 
The  smaller  capitals  in  this  order,  although  more  classical 
than  those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  were  still  greatly  modified 
in  comparison  with  ancient  examples.  Especially  frequent 
was  a  capital  with  but  a  single  row  of  leaves,  often  with 
dolphins  or  other  fantastic  substitutes  for  the  volutes.  In  a 
series  of  such  capitals  each  one  was  often  individually  designed, 
as  in  medieval  composition  (Fig.  210).  With  Alberti  came  a 
wider  use  of  the  other  orders,  due  to  their  superposition  as  in 
the  amphitheaters,  although  the  strict  sequence  of  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  was  not  always  followed.  From  the 
time  of  Bramante  the  Doric  order  obtained  the  preference,  and 
the  forms  of  all  the  orders  became  more  strictly  classical. 
There  was  also  a  tendency  to  increase  the  scale  of  the  orders 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


375 


and  to  subsume  more  than  a  single  story  in  the  height  of  one 
order.  In  the  interior  of  churches  the  use  of  a  single  order 
reaching  to  the  spring  of  the  vaults  was  a  legacy  from  medieval 
churches  with  their  vaulting  shafts.  It  persisted  when,  in 
Bramante's  studies  for  Saint  Peter's,  he  introduced  subordi- 


JJUUUIJUUUUUUUVIJI 


FIG.  211 — "HIGH  RENAISSANCE"  DETAILS.     (AFTER  GROMORT) 

1.  Cornice  ot  the  Palazzo  Farnese,  Rome. 

2.  Window  of  the  Palazzo  Pandolfini.  Florence. 

3.  Corner  of  the  Library  of  Saint  Mark,  Venice. 


376        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

nate  superposed  ordeTs,  and  it  appeared  on  the  exterior  as  well. 
In  civil  architecture,  also,  the  employment  of  a  single  inclusive 
order  was  approached,  although  during  the  Renaissance 
proper  there  was  scarcely  more  than  a  mezzanine  combined 
with  the  principal  story.  At  the  other  extreme  from  the 
employment  from  these  "colossal"  orders  was  the  use  of 
miniature  columns  to  carry  the  coping  of  a  parapet  (Fig.  210). 
In  the  villa  at  Cajano  and  later  buildings,  however,  these 
colonnettes  were  replaced  by  the  vase-like  forms  known  as 
balusters  (cf.  Fig.  211),  creations  of  the  Renaissance,  which 
have  ever  since  retained  their  importance. 

Arch,  lintel,  and  column.  The  architects  of  the  Renaissance 
rarely  made  use  of  the  free  horizontal  lintel,  except  in  loggias 
where  there  was  no  vaulting  or  superincumbent  wall.  They 
preferred  at  first  to  spring  arches  from  column  to  column,  later 
to  enframe  the  arch  by  an  order  with  pilasters  or  engaged 
columns.  In  this  they  reversed  the  sequence  of  development 
in  Roman  architecture.  In  the  last  years  of  the  period, 
however,  the  desire  for  richness  led  them  to  substitute  an 
entablature  for  the  impost  in  the  arch  order  and  place  a  minor 
column  below  it.  Thus  was  devised  the  so-called  "Palladian 
motive"  of  a  central  arch  resting  on  the  entablatures  of  lateral 
square-headed  bays,  which  first  appeared  in  the  Pazzi  Chapel 
and  found  its  definitive  use  in  Palladio's  Basilica  at  Vicenza 
(Fig.  225). 

Wall  membering.  In  the  use  of  columnar  forms  for  the 
membering  of  a  wall,  the  tendency  of  development  was  in  the 
same  direction  as  in  Roman  architecture.  Whereas,  beginning 
with  Alberti,  a  subdivision  by  pilasters  and  entablatures  was 
usual,  after  1500  there  was  a  reversion  to  wall  surfaces  without 
other  orders  than  those  of  the  window  enframements.  In 
Bramante's  palaces  the  order  is  omitted  in  the  ground  story, 
which  once  more  has  merely  a  frank  rustication;  and  in  the 
Pandolfmi  and  many  later  palaces  the  effect  is  dependent 
entirely  on  tabernacle-work,  as  it  had  been  in  the  late  Roman 
stage  backgrounds.  In  High  Renaissance  palaces,  to  be  sure, 
the  engaged  column  was  often  substituted  for  the  pilaster,  but 
this  was  followed  by  the  use  of  columns  standing  quite  free  of 
the  wall  and  thus  clearly  betraying  their  decorative  character. 
The  scheme  of  the  arch  of  Domitian  (Constantine)  was  thus 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE         377 

repeated  in  a  playful  manner  in  Sansovino's  Logetta  in 
Venice  (1540). 

Proportions.  With  the  revival  of  classical  forms  came  a 
revival  of  classical  proportions,  and  still  more  of  the  classical 
system  of  proportions.  Alberti  and  others  inculcated  the 
use  of  integral  ratios,  and  the  modular  system  of  Vitruvius 
for  determining  the  members  of  the  orders.  However  much 
the  architects  of  the  period  felt  free  to  depart  from  such 
mathematical  proportions  in  actual  practice,  there  can  be  no 
question  that  they  gave  great  attention  to  geometrical 
similarity  in  the  designing  of  masses  and  openings.  There 
results  in  many  works  a  musical  harmony  of  forms  like  that  of 
Periclean  architecture. 

Ornament.  The  love  of  ornament,  both  in  sculpture  and  in 
color,  which  was  characteristic  of  Italy  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  persisted  in  the  Renaissance.  Classical  models  were 
here  taken  up  even  more  readily  than  for  the  larger  forms  of 
architecture.  Garlands,  rosettes,  arabesques,  candelabra,  and 
acanthus  foliage  were  carved  with  a  knowledge  and  freedom 
which  showed  them  to  have  become  true  possessions  of  the 
Renaissance  artist  (Fig.  210).  Notwithstanding  their  own 
abilities  as  sculptors  and  ornamentalists,  the  early  Florentine 
architects  kept  the  carved  detail  strictly  subordinate  to  the 
architectural  forms.  In  Lombardy  this  was  less  often  the 
case.  There  even  the  pilaster  itself  was  paneled  to  receive 
an  arabesque.  In  Rome  under  Bramante  the  abstract  archi- 
tectural forms  tended  to  supersede  floral  ornament  altogether. 
The  Tempietto  of  Bramante  shows  not  a  leaf  on  the  exterior. 
Under  Raphael  and  Michelangelo,  on  the  other  hand,  decora- 
tive features  once  more  reasserted  themselves  in  the  facade 
(Fig.  202),  and  in  the  loggias  of  the  Villa  Madama  and  of  the 
Vatican  they  reached  perhaps  their  highest  development 
(Fig.  201). 

Spatial  forms.  The  same  preoccupation  with  proportions 
which  appeared  in  the  study  of  facades  showed  itself  in  the 
determination  of  the  forms  of  interior  space.  Except  in 
churches,  rectangular  shapes  were  almost  the  only  ones  em- 
ployed. Simple  integral  ratios  were  recommended  for  the 
relations  of  the  length  and  height  of  rooms  to  their  width.  In 
general  each  element  formed  a  unit  completely  independent, 


378        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

without  any  spatial  connection  with  others.  The  stairs, 
which  might  have  furnished  such  a  connection,  were  either 
based  on  the  spiral  stairs  of  the  Middle  Ages  or  were  in  narrow 
runs  inclosed  between  walls. 

Vaults.  The  technical  difficulties  of  vaulting,  after  the 
vast  experience  of  the  Middle  Ages,  troubled  the  men  of  the 
Renaissance  but  little.  They  were  free  to  choose  those  forms, 
whether  classical  or  medieval,  which  comported  best  with  their 
feeling  for  the  composition  of  space.  The  one  most  preferred 
was  the  dome.  Except  in  the  attempts  of  Alberti  to  imitate 
Roman  examples,  this  was  usually  employed  over  a  square 
plan — either  as  one  of  a  series  of  domical  vaults  supported  on 
cross-arches  or  as  a  dome  on  pendentives  at  the  central  point 
of  a  plan.  From  the  time  of  Bramante's  studies  for  Saint 
Peter's  his  solution  of  the  problem  of  a  dome  on  pendentives — 
with  an  enlargement  of  the  central  space  by  short  diagonal 
faces  below  the  pendentives — was  widely  adopted.  The  barrel 
vault,  which  frequently  appeared  over  the  arms  of  cross-plans 
and  elsewhere,  was  likewise  seldom  given  its  unbroken  con- 
tinuity but  was  banded  with  cross-arches  at  each  bay  after  the 
medieval  fashion.  Penetrations  of  the  vaulting  surface,  which 
might  have  given  light  directly  in  the  vault,  were  as  rare  as 
in  Roman  architecture.  The  groined  vault,  too,  was  little 
favored,  appearing  almost  solely  in  the  interior  arcades  of 
courts,  where  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  concentrated  thrust 
which  might  be  met  by  iron  rods  at  each  bay.  On  the  other 
hand  the  cloister  vault,  a  square  or  octagonal  dome,  was  widely 
used,  as  well  as  the  apse,  which  might  be  either  semicircular 
or  semi-octagonal.  A  rich  combination  of  vault  forms  with 
supporting  members  perfectly  adapted  to  them  occurs  in  the 
loggia  of  the  Villa  Madama  (Fig.  201),  in  which  appears  also 
a  characteristic  decoration  of  arabesques  in  stucco. 

External  treatment  of  the  dome.  The  only  one  of  the  vaults 
which  rose  above  the  roofs,  and  thus  required  an  external 
expression,  was  the  central  dome,  usually  on  pendentives.  In 
the  cathedral  of  Florence  this  already  dominated  the  exterior 
in  a  way  which  set  the  model  for  all  the  great  domes  of  the 
period.  In  minor  buildings  like  the  Pazzi  chapel  the  dome 
might  still  spring  directly  from  the  pendentives  and  be  in- 
closed in  a  conical  roof,  but  in  more  important  examples  a 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE         379 

drum  was  unfailingly  introduced,  lighting  the  space  below  and 
raising  the  dome  into  prominence.  The  curve  of  the  dome  was 
then  shown  on  the  exterior.  Bramante,  in  his  Tempietto, 
treated  the  drum  with  pilaster-like  panels  inclosing  windows 
and  niches  alternately.  For  Saint  Peter's  he  placed  around 
the  drum  a  full  exterior  peristyle.  This  rose  above  the  center 
of  the  curve,  and  was  surmounted  by  a  pedestal  and  steps,  so 
that  the  dome  has  the  saucer-effect  of  the  Pantheon  and  other 
Roman  examples.  This  form,  however,  remained  without 
imitators,  for  the  tendency  was  rather  to  increase  both  the 
steepness  of  the  curve  and  the  height  of  the  drum.  Thus  the 
model  made  by  San  Gallo  for  the  dome  of  Saint  Peter's  had 
its  base  encircled  by  a  Roman  arch  order  in  two  receding 
stories,  and  was  crowned  with  a  vast  lantern  which  gave  the 
whole  mass  an  almost  conical  aspect. 

Roofs.  The  roofs  in  Italy  had  relatively  little  importance 
in  the  composition  of  individual  buildings,  being  either  low 
in  pitch  or  else  quite  flat  and  bordered  with  balustrades.  In 
the  general  effect  of  town  and  landscape,  however,  their  red 
tiles  made  a  striking  contrast  with  the  prevailing  whiteness 
of  the  walls. 

General  character  of  Renaissance  forms.  Through  the  spatial 
forms  of  the  Renaissance,  the  massing,  the  forms  of  detail, 
runs  a  consistent  character,  which  might  be  expressed  as  the 
internal  unity  of  each  element  and  the  unchangeableness  of  its 
impression  on  the  observer.  The  isolation  of  each  spatial 
element  by  bounding  arches,  the  preference  for  self-centered 
domical  forms  and  for  centrally  composed  buildings,  the  self- 
sufficiency  of  each  story  and  each  bay,  the  unbroken  enframe- 
ment  of  openings  and  gables,  the  lack  of  projecting  masses 
which  might  make  transition  between  a  building  and  its 
surroundings,  and  render  its  effect  changeable  with  changing 
points  of  view — all  these  are  manifestations  of  a  definite 
feeling  regarding  form,  which  distinguishes  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance from  both  preceding  and  following  periods. 

France.  The  country  outside  of  Italy  which  was  earliest 
and  most  deeply  affected  by  the  Renaissance  was  France. 
The  Latin  element  in  the  population  was  here  predominant, 
and  Latin  culture  was  reassimilated  with  such  readiness  as  to 
find  a  new  home.  The  centralized  power  of  the  crown  gave 


380        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

opportunity  for  undertakings  on  a  scale  unrivaled  elsewhere 
outside  of  Rome,  and  for  the  calling  from  Italy  of  artists  of  the 
first  class.  At  the  same  time  it  determined  the  character  of 
the  predominant  architectural  type,  the  chateau  of  the  king 
or  the  court  noble. 

Development.  Transitional  period,  1495-15/5.  It  was  the 
claims  of  the  French  kings  to  Italian  territory,  leading  to  a 
series  of  invasions  by  Charles  VIII.,  Louis  XII.,  and  Francis  I., 
which  revealed  to  them  the  splendor  and  luxury  of  Italian  art, 
and  led  to  the  successful  establishment  of  Renaissance  forms 
in  France.  The  process  was  a  gradual  one,  occupying  a  period 
of  twenty  years  from  the  return  of  Charles  VIII.  in  1495. 
During  this  time  the  predominant  character  of  the  buildings 
remained  Gothic,  but  Renaissance  details  mingled  with  the 
Gothic  forms  in  ever  increasing  proportions.  An  early 
instance  of  such  a  mixture  is  the  wing  built  by  Louis  XII.  in 
the  chateau  of  Blois  (1503,  Fig.  212).  Here  the  classical 
influence  appears  in  little  else  but  the  elliptical  form  of  the 
arches  and  the  delicate  arabesque  panels  which  decorate  the 
piers.  At  the  chateau  of  Gaillon  pilasters  and  entablatures 
imitate  the  arch  order  and  other  classical  features. 

Early  Renaissance,  1515-45.  Francis  I.  With  the  reign 
of  Francis  I.  (1515-47)  coincides  the  early  Renaissance,  in 
which,  although  the  structure  and  disposition  of  buildings 
were  still  fundamentally  Gothic,  they  were  completely  clothed 
in  a  garb  of  pseudo-classical  forms.  The  irregular  plans, 
round  towers,  and  high,  steep  roofs  with  dormers  persisted, 
but  the  stories  were  treated  with  superposed  orders  of  delicate 
pilasters  and  entablatures,  the  main  cornices  were  emphasized 
with  an  aggregation  of  Italian  elements.  The  center  of 
activity  remained  in  the  royal  residences  of  the  Loire  valley. 
The  earliest  phase  of  the  style  is  well  illustrated  in  the  wing  of 
Francis  I.  at  Blois  (1515-19),  with  the  magnificent  spiral  stair- 
way in  classical  masquerade  (Fig.  212).  At  the  chateau  of 
Chambord,  constructed  in  1526-44,  the  detail  was  similar, 
but  the  plan  was  for  the  first  time  rigidly  symmetrical.  In  the 
chateau  of  Ecouen  (1531-40),  likwise  symmetrical,  square 
towers  or  angle  pavilions  took  the  place  of  round  ones,  and  the 
Chateau  Madrid  near  Paris  was  lent  a  truly  Italian  air  by  its 
graceful  exterior  arcades  resting  on  columns  like  those  of  a 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


381 


Florentine  court.  Owing  to  the  conquest  of  Milan  by  Francis 
and  to  his  patronage  of  north  Italian  'artists,  it  was  the 
influence  of  Lombardy  which  predominated  in  the  detail.  The 
paneled  pilasters  and  florid  ornament  of  the  Loire  chateaux 
are  the  descendants  of  those  at  San  Satiro  and  the  Certosa 
(Fig.  195). 

The  High  Renaissance,  1545-70.     Henry  II.     In  the  last 
years  of  Francis  and  the  following  reign  of  Henry  II.  came  a 


FIG.    212 — BLOIS.       COURT    OF    THE     CHATEAU,    SHOWING    WINGS    OF 

LOUIS  xii  (AT  BACK)  AND  FRANCIS  i  (AT  LEFT) 

change,  due  to  the  assimilation  of  the  style  and  to  the  influence 
of  the  Roman  school  of  Bramante.  The  Italian  masters  now 
brought  to  France  represented  this  tradition — Serlio  the 
pupil  of  Peruzzi,  Primaticcio  the  pupil'of  a  disciple  of  Raphael. 
For  the  first  time,  also,  Frenchmen  assumed  the  r61e  of  archi- 
tect in  the  modern  sense.  Jean  Goujon,  Pierre  Lescot, 
Philibert  de  l'Orme,  Jacques  Androuet  du  Cerceau,  and  Jean 
Bullant  were  not  mere  master  builders.  Most,  if  not  all,  of 
them  had  been  in  Italy  and  had  studied  the  designs  of  the 
Roman  masters;  some  of  them  held  high  court  appointments. 
Their  buildings  show  a  mastery  of  the  grammar  of  classical 


3$2        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

forms  and  an  ability  to  use  them  freely  to  secure  new  effects 
which  were  characteristically  national.  These  depended 
partly  on  differing  climatic  conditions,  which  required  lower 
rooms,  larger  windows,  and  tall  chimney  stacks,  and  partly 
on  tradition,  which  still  caused  the  retention  of  projecting 
pavilions  with  high  individual  roofs. 

First  designs.  The  earliest  work  to  show  the  characteristics 
of  the  High  Renaissance  is  the  Hotel  de  Ville  in  Paris,  begun 
from  a  model  by  Domenico  of  Cortona  (called  Boccador)  in 
1531.  The  motive  was  suggested  by  Raphael's  Palazzo  dell' 
Aquila,  with  a  Roman  arch  order  below  and  niches  between 
the  windows  of  the  main  story.  By  1535  a  Frenchman  himself 
had  caught  the  spirit  of  classicism,  as  Goujon  showed  in  his 
tomb  for  Louis  de  Brez£  at  Rouen.  At  Ancy-le-France 
(1538-46)  Primaticcio  regularized  the' scheme  of  the  French 
chateau,  not  only  in  the  strictly  rectangular  plan  but  in  the 
uniform  intercolumniations  of  the  exterior  and  the  rhythmical 
bay  treatment  of  the  court.  At  the  same  time  De  l'Orme,  in 
Saint  Maur-les-Fosses,  introduced  the  rusticated  orders  of 
Sanmicheli.  At  Bournazel  in  the  south,  about  1545,  the 
neighboring  classical  monuments  stimulated  a  treatment  of 
the  triumphal  arch  motive  with  engaged  columns,  which  was 
truly  classical  in  its  monumentality.  The  most  characteristic 
design  of  all  was  that  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  Louvre  in  Paris, 
the  work  of  Lescot  and  Goujon  (Fig.  213).  Here  there  was 
the  subtlest  mingling  of  French  and  Italian  traditions.  The 
lower  stories — with  their  superposed  orders,  their  pedestals 
and  pedimented  windows — recall  Bramante  and  Raphael. 
The  projecting  motives  which  mark  the  end  bays  and  the 
center  suggest  those  of  the  Cancelleria,  as  well  as  the  French 
tower-pavilions.  The  delicacy  of  profiling  rivals  that  of 
Peruzzi.  The  great  size  of  the  windows,  the  pediments  which 
terminate  the  attic,  are  of  northern  origin,  while  the  emphasis 
which  results  from  the  use  of  both  pilasters  and  engaged 
columns  is  a  novel  contribution  by  Lescot. 

Later  developments.  Still  more  advanced  developments, 
parallel  with  contemporary  movements  in  Italy,  were  the  later 
designs  of  Primaticcio,  Bullant,  De  l'Orme,  and  Du  Cerceau. 
In  the  chateau  of  Monceaux  the  Italian  master  employed  for 
the  first  time  in  France — in  the  same  year  that  Michelangelo 


FIG.    213 — PARIS. 


COURT    OF    THE    LOUVRE.      (ORIGINAL    CONSTRUCTIONS 
OF  LESCOT  AND  GOUJON) 


384        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

designed  his  palaces  on  the  Capitol  (1547) — the  "colossal 
order"  rising  through  two  stories  to  the  main  cornice.  A 
similar  use  of  free  standing  columns  occurs  in  the  monumental 
frontispiece  erected  by  Bullant  at  Ecouen  (about  1564)  and 
elsewhere.  Domed  chapels  were  built  by  De  l'Orme  at  Anet 
(1548)  and  by  Primaticcio  at  Saint  Denis  (1559^.)-  Finally 
came  the  vast  symmetrical  plans  grouped  about  a  multitude 
of  courts,  designed  by  de  1'Orme  for  the  Tuileries  (1564,  Fig. 
214),  and  by  Du  Cerceau  for  Charleval  (1572),  which  surpassed 
anything  projected  in  Italy. 

Types  of  buildings.  Chateaux.  The  Renaissance  chateau 
developed,  as  its  name  implies,  from-the  fortified  castle  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Although  no  longer  planned  to  withstand 
a  siege,  it  was  still  made  secure  against  marauders  by  a  moat 
and  gate-house,  and  preserved  the  arrangement  about  a  court 
and  at  least  a  reminiscence  of  the  earlier  fortified  towers  at 
the  angles.  The  staircases,  at  first  spiral  like  those  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  were  later  arranged  in  straight  flights.  Access 
to  individual  rooms  could  usually  be  obtained  only  by  passing 
through  others,  for  even  the  open  air  circulation  provided  by 
the  arcades  of  an  Italian  courtyard  was  usually  absent.  A 
principal  hall  or  gallery  for  functions  of  state  was  provided, 
often  monumental  in  its  size  and  treatment,  like  the  gallery 
of  Henry  II.  at  Fontainebleau.  A  forecourt  outside  the  moat 
accommodated  the  service  functions. 

City  hotels.  Although  at  this  time  the  court  still  resided 
mostly  in  the  country,  town  houses  of  some  pretensions  were 
built  by  officials  and  wealthy  merchants.  These,  such  as  the 
Hdtel  d'Assezat  at  Toulouse,  were  unlike  the  Italian  town 
houses  which  faced  directly  on  the  street.  They  followed  the 
larger  medieval  houses  of  France  in  facing  on  a  court  which 
was  separated  from  the  street  by  a  screen  wall  with  an  arched 
carriage  entrance. 

Churches.  During  the  early  Renaissance  church  architect- 
ure remained  fundamentally  Gothic,  with  a  mere  substitution 
of  classical  details,  poorly  understood.  Saint  Eustache  in 
Paris,  a  typical  example,  still  has  a  plan  like  that  of  Notre 
Dame,  with  groined  vaults  and  flying  buttresses.  Many  of 
these  buildings  are  not  the  less  effective  from  their  combina- 
tion of  supposedly  incongruous  elements,  The  same  character 


10  «j  o     10    20  y>  40    50 


100 
-•METRES 


FIG.    214— PARIS.      THE   TUILERIES.       (DE   L'ORME's   PLAN) 


386        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

persists  in  most  churches  of  the  High  Renaissance,  but  the 
few  designed  by  the  court  architects  show  the  new  spirit. 
Thus  the  facade  of  Saint  Nizier  at  Lyons  (1542)  has  a  great 
niche  with  massive  half-columns,  and  the  Mausoleum  Chapel 
at  Anet  (1566)  is  classical  both  in  its  simple  rectangular  plan 
and  its  front  with  pilasters  and  attic.  De  rOrme's  chapel 
in  the  park  of  Villers-Cotterets  had  a  circular  dome  with  three 
semicircular  chapels  and  a  free-standing  pedimented  portico — 
the  earliest  in  France,  more  advanced  in  classical  character 
than  most  Italian  designs.  His  Palace  Chapel  for  Anet  had 
again  a  circular  central  space,  but  with  the  arms  of  a  Greek 
cross.  For  the  Mausoleum  of  the  Valois  at  Saint  Denis, 
Primaticcio  adopted  a  plan  like  that  of  Brunelleschi's  Santa 
Maria  degli  Angeli,  with  six  niched  chapels  and  a  gallery  about 
a  central  dome.  The  architectural  membering  here,  both 
inside  and  out,  was  of  the  richest  and  purest  classical  forms, 
and  the  building  ranks  among  the  most  important  of  all  the 
centrally  composed  buildings  of  the  Renaissance. 

Details.  In  France  where  the  climate  scarcely  permitted 
the  open  loggias  of  Italy,  the  free-standing  column  with  either 
lintel  or  arch  was  very  rare.  So  too,  during  the  Renaissance, 
was  the  simple  wall,  for  columns  and  entablatures  were 
indispensable  elements  of  decoration.  The  membering  of  the 
wall,  perhaps  in  combination  with  rustication,  was  the  major 
problem  of  the  time  among  questions  of  detail.  In  the  solu- 
tion of  it,  alternation  in  some  form  was  the  favorite  device. 
The  earlier  chateaux,  treated  with  pilasters,  had  windows  over 
one  another  in  one  bay,  then  blank  panels  in  the  next  bay. 
Later  the  true  rhythmical  bay  scheme  in  all  its  variants  was 
adopted.  The  rusticated  column  introduced  by  De  rOrme 
was  exalted  by  him  into  a  sixth  order,  which  he  called  the 
"French  order"  (Fig.  215).  Unlike  most  of  the  Italian 
examples,  some  of  the  French  ones  are  of  the  greatest  delicacy 
of  carved  enrichment.  In  the  early  Renaissance  the  Corin- 
thian order  had  the  same  preference  which  it  enjoyed  in  Italy; 
later  no  one  order  was  specially  favored.  The  low  ceilings 
usual  in  France,  with  the  prevailing  secular  character  of 
French  architecture,  gave  little  opportunity  for  a  development 
of  vaulting.  The  flat  ceilings  were  treated  as  in  Italy  with 
elaborate  coffering.  A  striking  feature  of  contrast  with  Italian 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


387 


architecture  was  the  high  roof  with  its  dormers,  gables,  and 
chimneys.  The  dormer  was  treated  first  with  pilasters  bearing 
pinnacles,  and  with  elaborate  gables  and  finials;  later  it  was 
given  merely  the  form  of  a  pedimented  window.  The  balus- 
trade above  the  cornice  gave  place  to  an  ornamental  cresting. 
A  common  feature  making  transition  be- 
tween the  wall  and  the  roof  was  a  row  of 
pediments  which  crowned  repeating  mo- 
tives below,  as  in  the  Louvre.  Such  ele- 
ments were  sufficient  by  themselves  to 
endow  French  buildings,  no  matter  how 
strictly  classical  in  their  ordonnance,  with 
a  characteristically  national  aspect. 

Spain.  In  Spain,  as  in  France  and  other 
countries  outside  of  Italy,  there  was  a 
mingling  of  Italian  forms  with  those  al- 
ready existing  in  the  native  medieval  archi- 
tecture. Here,  however,  the  medieval 
style  itself  included  a  large  admixture  of 
Moorish  forms.  Moriscoes,  until  their  ex- 
pulsion in  1610,  remained  prominent 
among  artificers,  and  thus  had  their  in- 
fluence on  the  Renaissance  forms  as  well. 
Thus  arose  the  Plateresque  or  silversmith's 
style,  so  called  from  the  intricate  and  deli- 
cate ornament  abounding  in  it.  This, 
which  corresponds  with  the  early  Renais- 
sance, extended  from  about  1500  to  1560. 
A  notable  example  is  the  Town  Hall  at 
Seville  (Fig.  216),  built  in  1527-32.  Here 
there  is  an  application  of  engaged  orders 
in  two  stories  which  in  its  main  lines  is 
thoroughly  grammatical,  but  which  has  pilasters,  columns, 
window  enframements,  and  panels  alike  covered  with  the 
richest  arabesques  and  candelabra-like  forms.  Even  more 
characteristic  in  its  mode  of  composition  is  the  doorway  of  the 
University  at  Salamanca.  Here  the  ornament  is  massed  in  a 
great  panel  above  the  opening,  which  contrasts  with  the 
broad  neighboring  surfaces  of  unbroken  masonry.  Other 
notable  features  of  the  style  are  open  arcaded  loggias  which 


FIG.  215 — PARIS.  DE- 
TAIL FROM  THE  TUI- 
LERIES.  (PLANAT) 


388        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

often  terminate  a  facade,  as  in  the  Casa  de  Monterey  at 
Salamanca  (1530),  and  the  courts  or  patios  surrounded  by 
galleries  which  are  found  in  all  important  buildings.  Forms 
like  those  of  the  High  Renaissance  in  Italy  first  appeared  in 
the  palace  begun  for  Charles  V.  in  the  Alhambra  (1527),  by 
Pedro  Machuca.  This  building  is  square  in  plan  with  a  circular 


FIG.    2l6 — SEVILLE.       TOWN    HALL 

colonnaded  court  having  superposed  orders,  Doric  and  Ionic 
(Fig.  217).  In  purity  and  classical  quality  the  building  holds 
its  own  with  contemporary  monuments  of  Italy.  From  this 
time  occasional  buildings  continued  the  stricter  classical 
tendency,  the  most  famous  examples  of  which  really  belong  to 
the  succeeding  period. 

Germany  and  the  Low  Countries.  In  Germany  the  multitude 
of  small  states  resulted  in  great  variety  in  the  degree  to  which 
Renaissance  principles  were  assimilated,  and  in  the  stage  of 
advancement  in  different  regions.  The  Belvedere  built  at 
Prague  about  1536  shows  a  full  exterior  peristyle  with  arches 
descending  on  columns,  all  of  Florentine  aspect.  Such  designs 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


389 


were  but  isolated  exceptions,  however.  In  most  buildings 
the  Italian  forms  were  strongly  modified,  and  the  medieval 
element  was  much  more  persistent  than  in  France.  The 
wing  built  by  the  Elector  Otto  Heinrich  (1556-59)  in  the 
castle  at  Heidelberg  shows  a  combination  of  elements  derived 


FIG.    2*7 — GRANADA.      PALACE   OF   CHARLES   V.      COURT 


from  Bramante  and  his  school  with  other  elements  from 
Lombardy  (Fig.  218).  Three  superposed  orders,  the  two  lower 
ones  with  pilasters,  recall  the  Cancelleria,  but  every  second 
support  is  replaced  by  a  corbel  and  a  statued  niche  like  those 
introduced  by  Raphael.  In  the  lower  story  the  pilasters  are 
rusticated,  in  the  following  story  they  have  arabesque  panels. 
The  window  enframements  with  their  candelabra  mullions 
recall  the  Certosa  at  Pavia.  A  similar  character  prevailed 
in  most  buildings  of  the  later  sixteenth  century,  which  began 
to  be  influenced  by  the  baroque  movement  in  Italy.  The 


A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 


baroque  spirit,  as  we  shall  see,  was  indeed  akin  to  that  of  the 
German  Renaissance  craftsmen,  as  their  ready  assimilation 
of  the  forms  of  herms,  "cartouches,"  and  broken  pediments 
reveals.  The  wing  at  Heidelberg  built  by  Friedrich  IV. 
(1601-07),  where  such  features  appear,  shows  at  first  glance 


FIG.   2l8 — HEIDELBERG. 


WING   OF   OTTO  HEINRICH   IN  THE 
CASTLE 


but  little  difference  from  its  predecessor.  The  Peller  house 
at  Nurnberg  (1625)  shows  the  continued  vitality  of  the 
Renaissance  as  applied  to  one  of  the  most  common  problems 
in  Germany,  the  dwelling  of  the  wealthy  town  merchant 
(Fig.  219).  Its  superposed  orders,  enframing  the  windows, 
run  up  continuously  into  the  great  stepped  and  ornamented 
gable,  which  still  proclaims  a  descent  from  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  Flanders  and  Holland,  except  for  the  more  frequent  use  of 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


39i 


brick,  the  general  character  of  the  work  is  similar  to  that 
of  Germany. 

England.  Development.  The  latest  of  the  great  Western 
nations  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  Renaissance  in  architecture 
was  England,  isolated  and  always  conservative.  Italian 
sculptors  were  employed  by  Wolsey  and  Henry  VIII.,  and  their 


FIG.   219 — NURNBERG.      PELLER   HOUSE 

influence  made  itself  felt,  as  at  Hampton  Court  (1515-40), 
in  the  carved  details  of  many  buildings  which  remained 
essentially  Gothic.  Meanwhile  the  spirit  of  classical  sym- 
metry was  appearing  in  the  plans,  and  shortly  before  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  in  1558  the  forms  of  the  orders  began 
to  be  imitated  and  applied  to  the  fagades  of  buildings.  The 
Italians  had  meanwhile  gradually  departed,  but  Flemings  and 

Germans  began  to  take  their  places,  and  at  least  one  English- 
14 


392 

man,  John  Shute,  went  to  Italy  to  study  architecture  (1550). 
His  First  and  Chief  Grounds  of  Architecture  (1563)  was  based 
on  Vitruvius  and  gave  diagrams  of  the  orders.  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  secured  from  Flanders  the  design  of  the  Royal 
Exchange  (1567-70),  which  had  a  court  of  Florentine  aspect, 
with  arches  resting  on  columns  below,  pilasters  and  statued 
niches  above.  In  Longleat  House  (1567-80)  the  whole  ex- 
terior, in  three  stories,  was  treated  with  superposed  orders  of 
grammatical  form  and  proportions,  and  many  porches  and 
doorways  from  less  elaborate  houses  of  just  this  period  show 
that  the  classical  forms  were  well  understood.  It  is  this 
phase  of  style,  lasting  but  a  very  few  years,  which  really 
corresponds  to  the  High  Renaissance  in  Italy  and  France. 
The  tide  of  baroque  ornament  which  was  already  inundating 
the  Continent  swept  over  England  also  before  either  the 
medieval  or  the  Renaissance  currents  had  spent  their  force. 
The  architectural  books  of  De  Vries  (1559-77)  and  other 
Flemings  and  Germans — full  of  the  new  and  bizarre  combina- 
tions of  classical  elements,  scrolls,  cartouches,  and  "strap- 
work,"  imitating  cut  leather — were  widely  followed. 

Types.  While  in  its  details  the  architecture  of  Elizabeth 
and  James  I.  thus  passed  from  medieval  to  post-Renaissance, 
in  its  practical  problems  and  types  it  forms  unmistakably  a 
unit,  governed  by  the  life  of  the  Renaissance  itself — the  pe- 
riod of  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Raleigh.  Although  the 
monarchy  was  powerful  enough  to  insure  peace,  the  landed 
aristocracy  remained  of  great  wealth  and  importance.  The 
country  houses  of  nobles  and  gentlemen,  often  on  a  vast  scale, 
were  the  principal  creations  of  the  period.  These  men  were 
less  interested  in  religious  than  in  mundane  things,  so  that  new 
churches  were  few  and  they  remained  almost  purely  Gothic. 

The  house.  The  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  houses  were 
developed  from  the  medieval  fortified  manors  by  making  them 
more  symmetrical  and  more  open,  and  by  ornamenting  or  over- 
laying certain  portions  with  classical  details.  The  basic 
arrangement  was  a  square  court,  on  one  side  of  which,  opposite 
the  gate-house,  was  the  great  hall,  where  master  and  servants 
ate  and  mingled.  At  one  end  of  the  hall  was  the  entrance 
passage  or  "screens,"  at  the  other  the  dais  for  the  high  table, 
with  its  fireplace  and  bay  window.  Beyond,  in  either  direc- 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


393 


C    O  O   &    T 


tion,  were  the  kitchens  and  the  private  apartments,  respec- 
tively, and  along  the  sides  of  the  court  were  lodgings  reached 
only  by  passing  through  those  intervening  or  through  the 
open  air.  In  the  second  story,  approached  by  the  principal 
staircase  near  the  dais,  was  the  long  gallery,  a  luxurious  feature 
first  introduced  at 
Hampton  Court. 
This  often  at- 
tained a  length  of 
over  two  hundred 
feet,  with  a  width 
of  but  sixteen  to 
twenty  -  five.  In 
the  earlier  ex- 
amples there  was 
no  attempt  to 
secure  formal 
symmetry  either 
in  plan  or  in  eleva- 
tion. At  Sutton 
Place  (1523-25) 
the  court  was 
made  for  the  first 
time  rigidly  sym- 
metrical, and  this 
later  became  the 
rule  also  for  the 
external  facades, 
so  far  as  they  could 
be  appreciated  in 
any  single  view. 
The  gate  -  house 
and  "screens" 
were  centered  on 
the  main  axis,  the  bay  window  of  the  dais  was  repeated  on 
the  other  side  of  the  court.  At  Montacute  (1580)  and  many 
later  houses,  the  lodgings  inclosing  the  court  were  omitted 
and  the  house  was  opened  freely  in  all  directions.  With  the 
porch  and  with  projections  on  the  garden  side  the  plan  thus 
became  E  or  H-shaped  (Fig.  220).  Medieval  elements  re- 


FIG.    22O — MONTACUTE   HOUSE.       (GOTCH) 

I.  Hall.  2.  Drawing-room.  3.  Large  dining-room.  4.  Small 
dining-room.  5.%Smoke-room.  6.  Pantry.  7.  Kitchen.  8.  Ser- 
vants Hall.  9.  Porch.  10.  Garden  house. 


394        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

mained  important  in  the  aspect  as  well  as  in  the  plan,  for  a 
multitude  of  high  roofs,  gables,  dormers,  turrets,  chimney 
stacks,  and  bay  windows  diversified  the  skylines  and  the  wall 
surfaces.  Even  at  Longleat,  the  most  classical  of  all  the 
houses,  the  mullioned  bays  still  tell  more  powerfully  than  the 


FIG.    221— HATFIELD    HOUSE 


engaged  orders.  In  others  which  were  more  typical,  like 
Hatfield  House  (1611,  Fig.  221),  the  elements  are  almost 
purely  medieval,  and  what  has  transformed  the  whole  into 
something  new  and  characteristic  is  only  the  classical  spirit 
of  symmetry  and  order. 

PERIODS  OF  RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


IJALY 

I.      Early  Renaissance,  c.  1420-1500. 
Florentine  school. 

Filippo  Brunelleschi,  1379-1446. 
Spedale  degli  Innocenti,  1421. 
San  Lorenzo,  begun  about  1425. 
Pazzi  Chapel  and  Sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo, 
c.  1429. 


Centers 


Florence 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


395 


ITALY — (Continued) 

Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  1434. 

Santo  Spirito,  1435. 

Palazzo  Pitti,  c.  1440  (?). 
Michelozzo  di  Bartolornmeo,  1396-1472. 

Palazzo  Medici  (Riccardi),  begun  1444. 
Leon  Battista  Alberti,  1404-72. 

San  Francesco  at  Rimini,  1447. 

SS.  Annunziata  at  Florence,  1451. 

Palazzo  Rucellai  at  Florence,  1451-55. 

San  Sebastiano  at  Mantua,  1459. 

Sant'  Andrea  at  Mantua,  1472. 
Giuliano  da  San  Gallo,  1445-1516. 

Villa  Poggio  at  Cajano,  1485. 

Sacristy   of   Santo   Spirito   at   Florence 
(with  Cronaca),  1489-96. 

Palazzo  Strozzi  at  Florence  (with  others), 

1489-1507. 

Simone  del  Pollajuolo  (called  II  Cronaca), 
1457-1508. 

San  Francesco  al  Monte  at  Florence,  1487. 
Antonio  da  San  Gallo  the  elder,  i46i(?)- 

1534- 

San  Biagio  at  Montepulciano,  1518-37. 
Luciano  da  Laurana,  d.  c.  1482. 

Ducal  Palace  at  Urbino,  1468-82. 
Venetian  school. 

Pietro  Lombardo,  c.  1435-1512. 
Palazzo  Vendramini,  1481. 
Santa  Maria  dei  Miracoli,  1481-87. 
Lombard  school. 

Fra  Giocondo,  c.  1433-1515. 

(?)Loggia  del  Consiglio  at  Verona,  begun 

1476. 

Giovanni  Antonio  Amadeo,  1 44  7- 1 5  2  2 . 
Facade  of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia  (with 

others),  begun  1493. 
Donate  B  ramante ,  1 444- 1514. 

Sacristy  of  Santa  Maria  near  San  Satiro, 

Milan,  1489-98. 
Choir  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  Milan, 

1492-99. 
Santa  Maria  at  Abbiate  Grasso,    1497. 


Centers 


Florence 


396        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


ITALY — (Continued) 

Rome. 

Palazzo    Venezia    and    Church    of    San 

Marco,  1455-66. 
Palazzo  Cancelleria,  1486-95. 
II.    "High  Renaissance,"  c.  1500-40. 
Roman  school. 

Donato  Bramante  (1444-1514),  from  1499. 
Cloister    of    Santa    Maria    della    Pace, 

1504. 
Tempietto  at  San  Pietro  in  Montorio, 

1500-02. 
Court  of  the  Belvedere  at  the  Vatican, 

begun  1506. 

Saint  Peter's,  begun  1506. 
Palazzo  Caprini, 
Raphael,  1483-1520. 
Saint  Peter's,  1514-20. 
Loggias  of  the  Court  of  San  Damaso  at 

the  Vatican. 
Palazzo  dell'  Aquila. 
Villa  Madama,  begun  1520. 
Palazzo   Pandolfini  in  Florence,   begun 

c.  1520. 

Baldassare  Peruzzi,  1481-1536. 
Villa  Farnesina  in  Rome,  1509-11.' 
Palazzo  Albergati  in  Bologna,  1522. 
Palazzi  Massimi  at  Rome,  1531. 
Antonio  da  San  Gallo  the  younger,  1482- 

1546. 

Palazzo  Farnese  in  Rome,  c.  1520-80. 
Venetian  school. 

Michele  Sanmicheli,  1484-1559. 
Gates  of  Verona,  1533  Jff. 
Palazzo  Pompei  at  Verona,  1530. 
Palazzo  Grimani  at  Venice,  completed 

1539- 
Jacopo  Sansovino,  1486-1570. 

Palazzo   Cornaro  della  Ca'   Grande  at 

Venice,  1530. 

Library  of  Saint  Mark's  at  Venice,  1536. 
Logetta   of  the   Campanile   at  Venice, 

1540. 


Centers 


Florence. 


Rome 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 


397 


FRANCE 

I.  Transitional  period,  c.  1495-1515. 

Invasions  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII.,  1494- 

95,  and  by  Louis  XII.,  1499-1504. 
Wing  of  Louis  XII.  at  Blois,  1503. 
Chateau  of  Gaillon,  1497-1510. 

II.  Early  Renaissance,  c.  1515-45  (Francis  I.,  1515- 

47). 

Wing  of  Francis  I.  at  Blois,  1515-19. 
Chateau  of  Chambord,  1526-44. 
Chateau  of  Ecouen,  1531-40. 
Chateau  Madrid  near  Paris,  1528-0.  1565. 
Saint  Pierre  at  Caen,  1518-45. 
.  Saint  Eustache  at  Paris,  begun  1532. 

III.  "High Renaissance," c.  1545-70. 

Domenico  of  Cortona  (Boccador),  d.  1549. 

Hotel  de  Ville  at  Paris,  begun  1531. 
Jean  Goujon,  d.  between  1564  and  1568. 

Tomb  of  Louis  de  Breze  at  Rouen,  1535. 
Pierre  Lescot,  1510  (?)~78. 

Court    of    the    Louvre    (with    Goujon), 

1546-76. 
Francesco  Primaticcio,  1490-1570. 

Chateau  of  Ancy-le-France,  1538-46. 

Chateau  of  Monceaux -en-Brie,  1547-55. 

Tomb  of  the  Valois  at  Saint  Denis,  1559  jff. 
Philibert  de  1'Orme,  b.  between  1510   and 
1515;  d.  1570. 

Chateau  of  Saint  Maur-les-Fosses,  c.  1545. 

Chateau  d'Anet,  1548-54. 

Tuileries  at  Paris,  begun  1564. 
Jean  Bullant,  c.  1525  (?)~78. 

Chateau  d'Ecouen,  porticoes,  c.  1564. 
Jacques  Androuet  du  Cerceau,  b.  c.    1510; 
d.  after  1584. 

Chateau  of  Verneuil,  1565^". 

Chateau  of  Charleval,  1572-74. 


Centers 


Loire  valley 


Paris 


SPAIN 


1. 


Early  Renaissance,  "  Plateresque,"  c.  1480-1530. 
Enrique  de  Egas,  c.  1455-1534. 

Portal  of  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Cruz,  before  1514. 
Portal  of  the  University  in  Salamanca,  1515-30, 


398        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

SPAIN — (Continued) 

Alonso  de  Covarrubias,  c.  1488-1564. 

Archiepiscopal  palace  in  Alcala  de  Henares,  1534. 

North  facade  of  the  Alcazar  in  Toledo,  1537. 

Palacio  Monterey  in  Salamanca. 

Town  Hall  in  Seville,  1546-64. 
II.      High  Renaissance,  c.  1530-70. 
Diego  de  Siloe,  c.  1500-63. 

Cathedral  of  Granada,  1528  Jf. 
Pedro  Machuca. 

Palace  of  Charles  V.  in  Granada,  1526-33. 

GERMANY 

I.  Early  Renaissance,  c.  1520-50. 

Belvedere  at  Prague,  1534  jf. 
Palace  at  Landshut,  1536-43. 
Portal  of  the  Castle  at  Brieg,  1552. 

II.  High  Renaissance,  c.  1550-1600. 

Otto  Heinrichsbau  at  Heidelberg,  1556-63. 

Portico  of  the  Rathaus  in  Cologne,  1569-71. 

Rathaus  in  Lubeck,  1570  Jf. 

Rathaus  in  Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber,  1572  Jff. 

Friedrichsbau  at  Heidelberg,  1601-07.  ]  With  baroque  feat- 

Peller  House  in  Nurnberg,  1605.  I      ures. 

ENGLAND 

Henry  VIII. ,  1509-47.     Isolated  examples  of  Italian  ornament. 

Hampton  Court,  1515-40. 

Palace  of  Nonesuch,  c.  1537-50. 

Screen  in  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge,  1532-36. 
Elizabeth,  1558-1603. 

Burghley  House,  dormers,  1556  jf. 

Royal  Exchange  in  London,  1566-70. 

Longleat,  T  567-80. 

Kirby  Hall,  1570-1640. 

Montacute  House,  1580-1610. 

Wollaton,  1580-88. 
James  I.,  1603-25. 

Bramshill,  1605.  \ 

Hatfield  House,  1611.     f 

Audley  End,  1616.          ( With  baroque  features. 

Blickling  Hall,  1619-20.7 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE          399 
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

Renaissance  architecture  in  general.  Aside  from  series  of  which 
the  individual  volumes  are  listed  below  there  may  be  mentioned  es- 
pecially P.  Franld's  Die  Entwicklungsphasen  der  neueren  Baukunst, 
1914  (a  study  of  development),  and  C.  H.  Moore's  Character  of 
Renaissance  Architecture,  1905  (an  unsympathetic  estimate). 

Italy.  The  most  recent  and  authoritative  works  are  almost  ex- 
clusively in  foreign  languages.  Scholarly  general  works  are  H. 
Willich's  Baukunst  der  Renaissance  in  Italien,  1914  (Handbuch  der 
Kunstwissenschaft},  J.  Burckhardt's  Geschichte  der  Renaissance  in 
Italien  (Geschichte  der  neueren  Baukunst},  5th  ed.,  1912  (both  with 
emphasis  on  development),  and  J.  Durm's  Baukuni't  der  Renaissance 
in  Italien  (Handbuch  der  Architektur},  2d  ed.,  1914  (with  emphasis 
on  technical  analysis) .  A  competent  brief  sketch  of  the  development 
is  P.  Frankl's  Die  Renaissance-Architektur  in  Italien,  vol.  i,  1912 
(Aus  Natur  und  Geisteswelt} .  W.  J.  Anderson's  The  Architecture 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  4th  ed.,  1909,  and  G.  Gromort's  Histoire 
abrege  de  I1  architecture  de  la  renaissance  en  Italie,  1913,  are  richly 
illustrated  works,  which,  however,  repeat  many  statements  now 
generally  considered  erroneous.  Among  numerous  monumental  il- 
lustrated folios  covering  special  regions  may  be  mentioned:  P. 
Letarouilly's  Edifices  de  Rome  moderne,  3  vols.,  1868-74,  the  engrav- 
ings of  which  are  supplemented  by  photographs  in  H.  St rack's 
Baudenkmdler  Roms  des  XV. -XIX.  Jahrhunderts,  1891;  C.  Stegmann 
and  H.  von  Geymuller's  Architektur  der  Renaissance  in  Toscana, 
ii  vols.,  1885-1908;  and  R.  Reinhardt,  Raschdorff,  and  others' 
Palast- Architektur  von  Ober-Italien  und  Toscana  vom  XV.  bis  XVII. 
Jahrhundert,  5  vols.,  1886-1911.  H.  Strack's  Central-und  Kuppd- 
kirchen  der  Renaissance  in  Italien,  2  vols.,  1882;  W.  Limburger's 
Die  Gebdude  von  Florenz,  1910,  and  B.  Patzak's  Die  Renaissance-und 
Barock-Villa  in  Italien,  vols.  2  and  3,  1908-12,  are  careful  monographs. 

France.  The  fundamental  works  are  W.  Lubke's  Geschichte  der 
Renaissance  in  Frankreich,  2d  ed.,  1885  (Geschichte  der  neueren 
Baukunst},  and  H.  von  Geymuller's  Die  Baukunst  der  Renaissance 
in  Frankreich  (Handbuch  der  Architektur},  2  vols.,  1898-1901.  W.  H. 
Ward's  The  Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  France,  2  vols.,  1911, 
embodies  Geymuller's  researches  in  English,  with  numerous  illus- 
trations. R.  Blomfield's  History  of  French  Architecture,  1498-1661, 
2  vols.,  1911,  suffers  from  failure  to  employ  the  discussions  in  Ger- 
man. C.  T.  Mathew's  The  Renaissance  under  the  Valois,  1893,  is 
still  valuable  for  its  fine  illustrations.  Among  the  many  collections 
of  measured  drawings  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Berty,  Rouyer 
and  Darcel,  Daly,  and  Sauvageot.  Large  photographs  are  provided 


466        A  HiS  TORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

by  C.  Martin's  La  Renaissance  en  France,  2  vols.,  1910-12,  and  the 
relevant  section  of  C.  Gurlitt's  Die  Baukunst  Frankreichs,  4  vols., 
1896-1900.  The  chateaux  are  treated  specifically  in  two  works  by 
Victor  Petit  (lithographs),  in  H.  Saint  Saveur's  Chateaux  de  France 
(photographs),  and,  for  the  smaller  buildings,  in  L.  C.  Newhall's 
The  Minor  Chateaux  and  Manor  Houses  of  France  of  the  X  V.  and  X  VI. 
Century,  1914.  Urban  dwellings  are  covered  by  P.  Vitry's  Hotels 
et  maisons  de  la  renaissance  franqaise,  2  vols.,  1911-12.  The  field 
of  biography  is  particularly  rich,  in  the  works  of  Berty  (1860), 
Destailleur  (1863),  Lance  (1872),  Bauchal  (1887),  and  Vachon  (1910). 

Spain  and  Portugal.  A.  Byne  and  M.  Stapley's  Spanish  Architect- 
ure of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  1917,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  Plateresque, 
may  be  supplemented  by  the  sketch  prefixed  to  O.  Schubert's  Geschich- 
te  der  Barock  in  Spanien,  1908.  Further  illustration  is  furnished  by 
M.  Junghandel's  Die  Baukunst  Spaniens,  3  vols.,  1889-98;  C.  Uhde's 
Baudenkmdler  in  Spanien  und  Portugal,  2  vols.,  1892;  and  A.  Haupt's 
Die  Baukunst  der  Renaissance  in  Portugal,  2  vols.,  1890-95.  The 
Monumentos  arquitectonicos  de  Espana,  1859-81,  is  a  vast  series  pub- 
lished at  the  expense  of  the  state. 

Germany.  The  two  fundamental  accounts  are  W.  Liibke's  Ge- 
schichte  der  Renaissance  in  Deutschland  (Geschichte  der  neueren  Bau- 
kunst), 26.  ed.,  2  vols.,  1882,  and  G.  von  Bezold's  Die  Baukunst  der 
Renaissance  in  Deutschland,  Holland,  Belgien  und  Ddnemark  (Hand- 
buck  der  Architektur) ,  2d  ed.,  1908.  Monumental  folios  of  illus- 
trations are  A.  Ortwein  and  A.  Scheffer's  Deutsche  Renaissance,  9 
vols.,  1871-88;  K.  E.  O.  Fritsch's  Denkmaler  deutscher  Renaissance, 
4  vols.,  1891;  and  A.  Lambert  and  E.  Stahl's  Motive  der  deutschen 
Architektur  des  XVI.,  XVII.,  und  XVIII.  Jahrhunderts,  vol.  i, 
1890.  A  work  in  briefer  compass  is  J.  Hoffman's  Baukunst  und 
dekorative  Skulptur  der  Renaissance  in  Deutschland,  1909. 

England.  For  the  Renaissance  proper  the  principal  account  is 
J.  A.  Gotch's  Early  Renaissance  Architecture  in  England,  2d  ed., 
1914.  R.  Blomfield's  History  of  Renaissance  Architecture  in  Eng- 
land, 1500-1800,  2  vols.,  1897,  includes  a  briefer  discussion  of  the 
period  in  question.  An  abridged  edition  in  one  volume  was  issued 
in  1904.  Large  photographs  are  furnished  by  Gotch's  Architecture 
of  the  Renaissance  in  England,  2  vols.,  1894;  C.  Uhde's  Baudenkmdler 
in  Gross  Britanien,  2  vols.,  1894;  and  T.  Garner  and  A.  Stratton's 
The  Domestic  Architecture  of  England  During  the  Tudor  Period, 
3  vols.,  1908-11.  Other  discussions  of  the  domestic  architecture  of 
the  Renaissance  in  England  occur  in  Gotch's  The  Growth  of  the 
English  House,  1909,  and  H.  Muthesius's  Das  englische  Haus, 
vol.  i,  1904.  The  Renaissance  garden  is  covered  by  H.  I.  Triggs's 
Formal  Gardens  of  England  and  Scotland,  1902. 


CHAPTER  XI 
POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 

By  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  spiritual  forces 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy  were  exhausted,  and  new  forces 
began  to  determine  the  cultural  development.  Men  no  longer 
dreamed  of  a  literal  resurrection  of  pagan  Rome,  but  were 
confronted  by  the  revival  of  militant  Christianity  in  the 
Reformation  and  the  counter-Reformation.  With  the  growth 
of  centralized  states  came  absolutism  on  the  part  of  the 
monarchs,  elaboration  of  their  courts,  and  the  final  establish- 
ment of  domestic  security  and  of  modern  city  and  country 
life. 

Architectural  changes.  Simultaneously  with  the  beginning 
of  these  cultural  changes,  architecture  also  underwent  changes 
which  were  not  less  fundamental.  Classic  forms,  indeed, 
still  remained  elements  of  the  design,  and  conformity  to 
classical  canons  still  remained  the  ideal  in  some  quarters.  The 
feeling  as  to  what  constitutes  a  classical  character,  however, 
was  changed,  the  elements  became  materials  which  could  be 
recombined  or  played  with  freely,  and  emphasis  was  trans- 
ferred to  other  qualities  than  purity  of  detail  and  geometrical 
simplicity.  First  among  these  qualities  was  a  heightened 
unity  in  the  composition  of  single  buildings,  and  extension  of 
the  scope  of  the  composition  to  include  their  surroundings,  or 
even  whole  quarters  or  whole  towns.  There  was  a  correspond- 
ing decrease  in  the  isolation  and  self-sufficiency  of  individual 
parts  of  a  composition:  the  subdivisions  of  interior  space 
tended  to  melt  away;  the  lines  of  cornices  and  string-courses 
were  interrupted,  or  architraves,  pediments,  and  orders  were 
broken  by  rustic  blocks.  Facades  no  longer  conformed  to  a 
single  plane,  but  had  a  boldness  of  relief  which  resulted  in  an 
aspect  varying  with  every  movement  of  the  observer.  Practi- 


402        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

cal  requirements  became  more  specialized  and  the  forms  of 
rooms  began  to  be  differentiated  so  as  to  stand  in  an  organic 
relation  with  their  functions. 

Academic  and  baroque  tendencies.  Sharing  these  qualities, 
which  give  the  fundamental  unity  to  the  style  of  the  time,  are 
buildings  of  two  diverse  tendencies,  opposed  to  each  other  in 
their  relations  to  classical  architecture.  On  one  hand  was  the 
academic  tendency,  which  perpetuated  the  striving  of  the 
Renaissance  for  accurate  reproduction  of  classical  features 
and  for  the  establishment  of  mathematical  canons  of  pro- 
portion. On  the  other  hand  was  the  so-called  baroque 
tendency,  which  was  to  disregard  classical  dispositions  and 
theoretic  rules  alike,  and  to  use  the  forms  of  the  orders  as 
elements  of  a  plastic  modeling  of  masses.  Such  tendencies 
to  strictness  and  to  freedom  within  a  style  offered  nothing  new 
in  principle,  having  been  indeed  always  present  in  greater  or 
less  measure.  Only  the  sharpness  of  their  antithesis  was 
hitherto  unusual,  and  even  this  did  not  prevent  a  great  variety 
of  compromises  both  in  individual  buildings  and  in  the  work 
of  national  schools. 

An  inclusive  term.  In  English  the  designation  baroque  has 
always  been  applied  only  to  the  works  of  the  freer  tendency, 
and  not,  as  in  German  and  Italian,  to  all  the  works  of  the 
period.  The  other  works,  considered  as  still  belonging  to  the 
Renaissance,  have  thus  too  often  been  separated  from  those 
which  were  not  only  contemporary  with  them,  but  shared 
with  them  most  of  their  fundamental  qualities.  It  has  here 
been  thought  better  to  preserve  the  historical  unity  of  the 
period,  and  to  adopt  a  name  for  it — post-Renaissance — which 
expresses  merely  its  chronological  position  and  its  artistic 
patrimony. 

Centers  and  diffusion.  As  in  the  Renaissance,  the  new 
movements  first  acquired  form  and  momentum  in  Italy.  In 
northern  lands,  where  the  Renaissance  itself  was  associated 
with  the  Reformation,  they  scarcely  appeared  until  the  time 
of  the  wars  of  religion.  Unlike  the  Renaissance,  however,  they 
produced  results  elsewhere  equal  in  importance  to  those  in 
Italy.  Spain,  France,  and  England  had  meanwhile  become 
highly  centralized  nations,  which  successively  attained  world 
power,  while  Italy  and  Germany  remained  torn  by  internal 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   403 

struggles.  During  the  central  years  of  the  period  France 
dominated  European  politics  and  European  culture,  and  it  was 
thus  the  French  version  of  contemporary  ideas  which,  in 
later  years,  had  the  greatest  influence. 

Italy.  Academic  origins.  The  germs  of  both  academic  and 
baroque  tendencies  existed  in  Italy  well  within  the  Renais- 
sance period.  The  forerunners  of  academicism  were  Alberti 
and  the  early  editors  and  commentators  of  Vitruvius.  All 
these  were  concerned  largely  with  the  fixing  of  normal  forms 
and  proportions  for  individual  architectural  members.  After 
1500  the  editions  and  translations  of  Vitruvius  multiplied 
rapidly,  and  belief  in  the  infallible  authority  of  the  Roman 
writer  increased  to  a  fantastic  extent  best  seen  in  passages  in 
the  writings  of  Serlio,  appearing  1537-75.  The  rules  were  to 
be  followed  even  when  they  were  in  conflict  with  the  teachings 
of  ancient  monuments.  By  1542  the  adherents  of  formal 
theory  were  sufficiently  numerous  and  self-conscious  to  found 
a  Vitruvian  academy  in  Rome. 

Baroque  origins.  Michelangelo.  Against  this  academic  ten- 
dency there  arose  a  powerful  champion  in  Michelangelo. 
He  boldly  proclaimed  his  ambition  "to  burst  the  toils  and 
chains"  which  architecture  had  suffered  to  be  laid  upon  itself 
and  his  intention  to  hold  himself  bound  by  no  rule  ancient 
or  modern.  Already,  in  his  designs  for  the  fagade  of  San 
Lorenzo  (1514)  and  for  the  interior  of  the  Medici  chapel  in 
Florence  (1521-34,  Fig.  204),  he  had  shown  a  new  freedom. 
In  one  it  was  the  richer  relief  of  free-standing  columns  and 
sculpture,  here  used  for  the  first  time  as  decorative  forms  in  a 
Renaissance  facade.  In  the  other  it  was  the  unconventional 
use  of  classical  details  in  the  filling  of  the  main  architectural 
framework.  Entablatures  were  broken,  architraves  and  friezes 
omitted  at  will,  proportions  were  modified,  and  a  multitude 
of  consoles  were  introduced.  Within  the  tabernacles  above 
the  doors  the  inner  enframement  penetrates  even  the  hori- 
zontal cornice  and  rises  into  the  tympanum  of  the  pediment. 
In  the  sarcophagi  of  the  Medici  chapel  Michelangelo  even 
gave  a  suggestion  for  breaking  the  upper  cyma  of  a  pediment, 
which  he  and  others  soon  proceeded  to  do.  Similar  liberties 
of  detail  appear  in  another  of  his  designs  at  this  period,  not 
completed  after  his  death — the  vestibule  of  the  Laurentian 


"t*-- 

I     n 

'  Siar 


Mjpcpr 


^sdL.'^'mv    %      .•••'. 

—tiP^r^fef' 

.    LW"8»  **"•--«-,„ 


H----::I::I^ 


FIG.  222 — ROME.       PLAN  OF  SAINT  PETER'S  AND  THE  VATICAN.      (GROMORT) 


A.  Basilica  of  Saint  Peter 

B.  Piazza  of  Saint  Peter 

C.  Court  of  the  Belvedere 


D.  Court  of  San  Damaso  (with  the 

Loggias  of  Raphael) 

E.  Villa  Pia 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   405 

Library  in  Florence.  An  even  more  striking  innovation  here 
was  the  placing  of  the  stairs,  free  on  all  sides,  in  the  center  of  a 
room  which  rose  through  two  stories. 

Michelangelo's  later  work.  Saint  Peter's.  The  second  and 
more  important  period  of  Michelangelo's  architectural  work 
began  on  the  death  of  Antonio  da  San  Gallo  (1546),  when  he 
succeeded  to  the  direction  of  Saint  Peter's  and  the  papal  build- 


FIG.    223 — ROME.      SAINT    PETER  S    DOME    FROM   THE    EAST 

ings  generally.  He  was  already  seventy-one  years  of  age,  yet 
he  survived  and  continued  to  develop  for  eighteen  years 
more.  In  Saint  Peter's  (Fig.  222)  he  reverted  to  the  centrally 
composed  scheme  of  Bramante  which  had  been  modified  as  a 
result  of  liturgical  considerations  He  omitted  the  outer 
aisles  and  chapels  hitherto  proposed  and  restored  the  single 
colossal  order  on  the  exterior.  For  the  domes  proposed  by 
Bramante  and  San  Gallo  he  substituted  one  of  his  own  design, 
embodying  many  novel  features  (Fig.  223).  It  followed  the 
dome  of  Brunelleschi  in  having  more  than  a  single  shell  and  in 


4o6        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

having  a  system  of  deep  ribs  with  lighter  filling.  Michel- 
angelo, however,  took  advantage  of  the  multiplicity  of  shells 
to  give  the  exterior  of  the  dome  a  steeper  pitch  than  the  in- 
terior, and  he  gave  the  ribs  a  visible  expression  both  inside 
and  but.  Instead  of  a  continuous  exterior  peristyle  he  placed 
around  the  drum  a  series  of  buttress-like  masses,  one  at 


FIG.   224.      ROME.    THE   CAPITOL 


each  rib.  The  result  was  a  dome  of  new  and  more  soaring 
aspect,  which  has  remained  an  almost  universal  model  for  the 
following  centuries. 

The  Capitol.  Of  scarcely  less  influence  was  Michelangelo's 
work  on  the  Capitoline  Hill  in  Rome  (begun  1546).  Here  on 
the  saddle  between  the  two  summits  he  created  a  monumental 
group  hitherto  unrivaled  in  its  unity  (Fig.  224).  Taking  a 
suggestion,  perhaps,  from  the  square  at  Pienza,  he  made  the 
sides  of  his  square  diverge  toward  the  Palazzo  del  Senatore 
which  formed  the  background  for  a  rich  display  of  ancient 
sculpture.  To  right  and  left  were  palaces  identical  with 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   407 

each  other,  harmonious  with  the  principal  one,  yet  subordi- 
nated to  it  in  height  and  scale.  In  these,  for  the  first  time  in  a 
secular  building  of  the  Renaissance,  the  fagade  was  conceived 
as  a  whole  in  the  manner  of  a  Roman  building,  with  podium, 
columns,  and  entablature.  The  stories  are  not  individual 
units  superposed  on  one  another,  but  are  created  by  the  divi- 
sion of  the  larger  unity.  The  horizontal  subdivisions  are  in- 


FIG.    225 — VICENZA.      THE   BASILICA 

terrupted  by  the  continuous  vertical  lines  of  the  great  pilasters. 
Another  notable  feature  of  the  whole  composition  is  the 
emphasis  on  the  central  axes  given  by  features  of  greater  size 
and  relief,  or  by  progressive  increase  in  size.  The  great 
double  stair  of  the  Palazzo  del  Senatore  which  contributes  so 
much  to  this  emphasis  was  itself  novel  and  influential. 

Establishment  of  the  tendencies.  Palladia.  In  the  younger 
generation  which  surrounded  and  succeeded  Michelangelo 
the  dual  tendencies  of  the  day  became  firmly  established. 
Although  the  free  or  baroque  tendency  had  the  greater  fol- 
lowing, the  stricter  or  academic  tendency  did  not  yield  until 


408        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

its  greatest  master  had  created  models  which  later  had  wide 
influence.  This  master  was  Andrea  Palladio  of  Vicenza 
(1518-80).  He  had  in  his  youth  given  to  the  Roman  remains 
the  most  intensive  study  so  far  attempted.  His  earliest 
building,  the  Palazzo  della  Ragione,  or  Basilica,  at  Vicenza 
(Fig.  225),  although  continuing  certain  traditions  of  the 


FIG.    226 — VICENZA.      VILLA    ROTONDA 


Renaissance,  closely  approximates  a  basilica  of  Roman  times. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  he  chose  this  as  his  model  precisely 
because  of  the  identity  in  the  uses  of  the  buildings.  In  his 
subsequent  designs  there  can  be  traced  the  influence  of 
Michelangelo  as  well  as  of  the  antique.  In  some  palaces  he 
employed  the  colossal  order,  in  others,  where  he  still  retained 
an  order  for  each  story,  he  omitted  the  pedestal  between  and 
allowed  the  lines  of  the  balustrade  to  be  interrupted  by  the 
columns.  In  either  case  he  frequently  added  an  upper  story, 
treated  as  an  attic  like  those  of  the  Roman  triumphal  arches. 
He  carried  the  interruption  of  the  architectural  lines  even 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   409 

farther  than  Michelangelo,  permitting  the  windows  of  the 
upper  story  to  penetrate  into  the  main  entablature,  and 
breaking  the  entablature  at  each  bay  of  the  great  order. 
While  he  thus  reduced  the  independence  of  individual  mem- 
bers, he  tended  to  decrease  the  isolation  of  the  whole  building. 
Instead  of  emphasizing  the  corner  of  the  building  he  often 
weakened  the  expression  there,  making  the  work  not  a  mi- 
crocosm, like  the  Renaissance  palaces,  but  a  fragment  of  the 
cosmos.  Something  of  the  same  character  appears  in  Palla- 
dio's  designs  for  churches  and  villas.  In  the  villas,  for  in- 
stance, he  treated  the  service  buildings  surrounding  the  house 
as  wide-flung  colonnaded  wings  which  unite  house  and  land- 
scape. In  both  churches  and  villas  Palladio  made  an  attempt 
to  imitate  the  ancient  pedimented  temple  front.  The  Villa 
Almerigo  or  "Villa  Rotonda"  near  Vicenza  has  even  free- 
standing porticoes  with  a  front  of  six  columns  (Fig.  226). 
This  villa,  composed  about  a  central  axis,  with  a  domed  central 
salon,  served  as  a  prototype  for  many  others  in  northern  lands. 

Palladia's  writings.  Palladio's  influence  was  exercised 
chiefly  through  his  Four  Books  on  Architecture  (1570).  In 
these  he  not  only  gave  a  codification  of  the  orders  which  was 
widely  adopted,  but  furnished  the  first  considerable  body  of 
measured  drawings  of  ancient  buildings,  and  instituted  a  new 
custom  by  publishing  engravings  of  his  own  works. 

Vignola,  Vasari,  Alessi.  Other  men  who  aided  in  the  es- 
tablishment and  diffusion  of  the  new  tendencies  were  Vignola, 
Vasari,  and  Alessi,  all  disciples  of  Michelangelo.  Vignola, 
who  measured  ancient  fragments  in  the  interest  of  the  Vitru- 
vian  academy,  and  who  published  perhaps  the  most  in- 
fluential canon  of  the  orders,  showed  in  his  buildings  great 
freedom  of  invention.  At  Caprarola  (1547)  he  took  a  sug- 
gestion from  new  methods  of  fortification  to  build  a  five- 
sided  castle,  with  a  circular  court.  In  the  Villa  di  Papa 
Giulio  (1550)  he  made  a  rich  use  of  semicircular  forms,  and 
in  the  church  of  Sant'  Andrea  he  employed  an  elliptical  dome. 
Vasari,  best  known  for  his  biographies  of  artists,  also  created 
in  his  buildings  many  new  spatial  effects.  His  court  of  the 
Uffizi  in  Florence,  built  to  house  the -officials  of  the  ducal  ad- 
ministration, was  opened  freely  at  one  end,  and  partially  at 
the  other,  in  contrast  to  the  inclosed  courts  of  earlier  palaces. 


4io        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Alessi  began  the  creation  of  modern  Genoa  by  his  palaces  with 
their  arcaded  courts  and  their  elaborate  stairways.  His 
Palazzo  Marino  in  Milan  (Fig.  227),  with  its  lavish  use  of 
panels,  masks,  garlands,  and  consoles  to  organize  and  enliven 
the  wall  surfaces,  had  the  widest  influence  on  Renaissance 
architecture  north  of  the  Alps.  In  the  works  of  these  three 


FIG.    227 — MILAN.       PALAZZO    MARINO.      COURT 

men  rustication  commenced  to  attack  the  orders  and  the 
window  enframements.  It  broke  through  the  shafts  and 
architraves,  which  appeared  only  at  the  capitals  and  bases, 
in  the  corners,  or  between  the  blocks.  Sculptured  figures,  or 
herms  with  a  sculptured  bust  and  tapering  shaft,  began  to 
replace  pilasters  and  enframements,  although  geometrical 
forms  and  classical  dispositions  still  dominated. 

Baroque  supremacy.     The  years  from  1580  to  1730  in  Italy 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE    411 

were  years  of  undisputed  supremacy  for  the  baroque.  Build- 
ings in  which  classical  forms  were  strictly  followed  did  indeed 
appear  occasionally,  even  among  the  works  of  the  great  mas- 
ters of  the  free  tendency,  but  they  were  exceptional.  In 
general  the  greatest  liberty  was  assumed  in  planning  and  in 
mcmbering.  This  liberty,  which  has  so  often  been  conceived 
as  mere  caprice  or  license,  resulting  in  a  dissolution  or  degenera- 
tion of  Renaissance  forms,  may  better  be  looked  on  as  a 
positive,  constructive  process.  It  was  an  effort',  thoroughly 
conscious  of  its  aims  and  studious  of  its  means,  to  follow  to 
extreme  consequences  the  search  for  those  qualities  of  molten 
unity  and  variety  of  aspect  which  were  ideals  of  the  period  as 
a  whole.  In  this  striving,  geometrical  complexity  took  the 
place  of  simplicity,  ever-varying  diagonal  views  resulted  from 
curvatures  in  plan,  ever- varying  silhouettes  resulted  from 
curves  and  projections  in  elevation.  The  substitution  of 
swelling,  leather-like  cartouches  for  simple  shields  and  panels, 
the  appearance  of  twisted  columns,  the  overflowing  of  archi- 
tectural lines  by  sculpture,  or  the  substitution  of  sculptural 
forms  for  the  architectural  frames  themselves,  the  use  of 
richly  veined  and  colored  marbles  and  of  gilding  are  but  several 
manifestations  of  a  consistent  tendency.  The  aim  of  the 
academists  was  never  to  surprise;  the  aim  and  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  baroque  masters  was  to  surprise  continually. 

Delia  Porta,  Maderna.  Among  the  first  constructions  to 
feel  the  new  spirit  were  those  of  the  villa  gardens,  where  long 
before  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  architecture  lost 
its  formality  in  a  riot  of  sculpture,  artificial  rock-work,  and 
broken  silhouettes.  The  penetration  of  similar  motives  into 
monumental  architecture  soon  followed.  In  the  fagade  of  the 
church  of  the  Gesu  in  Rome,  designed  by  Delia  Porta  (c.  1573), 
there  are  pediments  one  within  another  on  the  same  entabla- 
ture. In  the  terminal  fountain  of  the  Acqua  Paola,  not- 
withstanding its  severe  classical  models,  the  outline  is  boldly 
animated  by  consoles  and  finials.  The  facade  of  Saint  Peter's 
added  by  Maderna  (1606-26)  has  a  graduated  increase  of  re- 
lief toward  the  center  and  a  complexity  of  rhythm  in  the  setting 
out  and  subdivision  of  its  bays  which  defies  any  casual  analysis. 
Its  skyline  dissolves  in  balustrades,  statuary,  and  cartouches. 

Bernini,  Borromini.    The  many-sided  artist  who  dominated 


412        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  later  years  of  the  baroque  movement  was  Gian  Lorenzo 
Bernini  (1598-1680).  Equally  distinguished  in  sculpture  and 
in  architecture,  he  broadened  the  scope  of  architectural  ex- 
pression to  a  range  hitherto  unknown.  The  canopy  over  the 
altar  of  Saint  Peter's  (1624-33)  with  its  twisted  and  floriated 
columns,  its  crown  of  consoles  and  its  bronze  hangings  (Fig. 
199),  is  at  the  opposite  pole  from  his  colonnades  of  the  square 
in  front  (1656-63),  unrelieved  in  their  Doric  simplicity.  A 
common  qu'ality  is  present,  however,  in  the  conception  of 
every  part  as  a  fragment,  requiring  the  others  to  complete  it. 
No  part  by  itself  is  symmetrical.  The  twisted  columns  turn 
in  opposite  directions,  one  half-ellipse  of  the  colonnades  de- 
mands the  other  (Fig.  222).  Rarely  are  opposite  sides  of  a 
motive  in  a  single  plane  or  parallel.  The  colonnades  converge 
toward  the  square  of  Saint  Peter's,  the  faces  of  the  Palazzo 
Ludovisi  (Montecitorio)  recede  equally  on  each  side,  the 
lines  of  the  Scala  Regia  of  the  Vatican  converge  toward  a 
single  vanishing-point.  Similar  devices  appear  also  in  the 
work  of  Bernini's  contemporary,  Francesco  Borromini.  His 
fagade  for  Sant'  Agnese  in  the  Piazza  Navona  at  Rome 
(1645-50)  has  all  its  lines  curved  in  plan;  his  plan  for  Sant' 
Ivo  (1660)  is  a  combination  of  triangles  and  arcs  which  con- 
tinually presents  something  unexpected. 

The  baroque  supremacy  outside  of  Rome.  Although  Rome 
itself  was  the  center  of  the  baroque  movement,  other  Italian 
cities  were  quick  to  feel  its  influence.  The  extent  to  which  it 
was  welcomed  varied  greatly  with  the  local  traditions  or  lack 
of  traditions.  Thus  in  Piedmont,  in  Genoa,  and  in  the  south, 
where  the  school  of  Bramante  had  never  become  firmly  es- 
tablished, the  baroque  was  unrestrained.  In  Turin  especially 
the  works  of  Guarino  Guarini,  such  as  the  Palazzo  Carignano 
(1680)  with  its  double  reverse  curve  in  facade,  went  to  ex- 
tremes. In  Florence,  on  the  other  hand,  the  baroque  scarcely 
obtained  a  foothold,  and  in  Venice  the  tradition  of  Sansovino 
restricted  it  to  a  few  examples.  The  most  notable  of  these, 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Salute  (1631-82)  by  Lon- 
ghena,  by  its  position  at  the  head  of  the  Grand  Canal,  has, 
however,  a  high  importance  in  the  aspect  of  the  city  (Fig.  228). 
Eight-sided,  with  its  central  dome  buttressed  by  great  scrolls 
carrying  statues,  and  with  a  second  large  dome  over  its  choir, 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   413 

it  has  captivated  successive  generations  of  artists  by  its  ever- 
changing  perspectives. 

Compromise:  Juvara,  Galilei,  Vanvitelli.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  the  academic  tendency  in  Italy  was  strengthened  by 
return  influences  from  France  and  from  England.  A  touch 
of  this  appears  in  the  work  of  Filippo  Juvara  (1685-1735), 


FIG.    228 — VENICE.      SANTA   MARIA   DELLA   SALUTE 


whose  buildings  in  Turin  include  the  great  domed  church  of  the 
Superga  (1706-20).  Another  of  the  leading  Italian  architects 
of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Alessandro  Galilei  (1691-1737), 
who  had  worked  in  England  under  Vanbrugh  and  represented 
the  same  compromise  between  academic  and  baroque  ten- 
dencies. His  fagade  for  the  church  of  the  Lateran  in  Rome  is 
strict  in  its  use  of  classical  elements  and  in  its  geometrical 
regularity,  but  has  a  free  skyline  and  complicated  grouping. 


4U        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

The  splendor  of  Versailles  under  Louis  XIV.  tempted  Italian 
princes  to  imitation.  The  most  notable  of  the  resulting  coun- 
try palaces  is  that  of  Caserta  near  Naples  by  Luigi  Vanvi- 
telli,  begun  in  1 7  5  2 .  The  plan  of  building  and  gardens  embodies 
French  elements,  the  membering  of  the  long  facades  is  dryly 
Palladian.  The  cycle  through  freedom  back  to  strictness  was 
soon  to  be  completed. 

Types  of  buildings.  Churches.  The  Counter  Reformation 
was  a  period  of  feverish  building  of  churches,  and  of  a  return 
to  a  more  liturgical  conception  in  their  design.  The  longitud- 
inal type  of  plan  was  once  more  preferred,  as  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Naves  were  added  to  some  Renaissance  churches  of 
central  type  as  ultimately  to  Saint  Peter's  itself  (Fig.  222). 
The  crossing  of  nave  and  transept  tended  to  lose  its  inde- 
pendence. In  new  designs  the  central  type  was  rarely  adopted 
except  for  votive  churches  like  the  Superga  and  the  Salute. 
In  the  Salute  the  radial  chapels  were  no  longer  isolated, 
but  united  to  form  a  single  encircling  aisle,  the  first  of  its  kind 
since  Byzantine  days.  Throughout  the  churches  the  self- 
centered  domical  vaults  gave  place  to  groined  vaults  with 
their  centrifugal  tendency,  barrel  vaults  were  interrupted  by 
penetrations,  galleries  tended  to  unite  the  bays  at  the  aisles 
and  even  to  project  into  the  nave.  A  broad  nave  and  shallow 
transepts  gave  space  for  a  congregation  corresponding  to  the 
increased  importance  of  the  sermon.  The  whole  plan  tended 
increasingly  to  conform  to  a  single  rectangle,  usually  sub- 
divided, to  be  sure,  but  into  parts  having  no  strong  unity  of 
their  own.  The  facades,  too,  were  treated  as  units,  with 
little  precise  relation  to  the  subdivision  of  the  interior.  The 
Renaissance  scheme  of  using  superposed  orders  in  the  center 
with  consoles  to  make  transition  from  the  lower  order  at  the 
sides  was  adhered  to  in  many  cases.  Even  more  character- 
istic, however,  was  the  employment  of  a  single  order  the 
full  height  of  the  nave,  masking  the  unequal  heights  of  nave 
and  aisles.  The  bell  tower  was  no  longer  designed  as  a  separate 
unit,  but  was  combined  with  the  facade  and  repeated  on 
either  side  as  in  northern  church  fronts.  In  the  treatment  of 
facades  and  still  more  of  interiors  there  was  often  a  lavishness 
of  figure  sculpture  and  of  painting  which  was  mundane  and 
theatrical,  perhaps,  but  remarkably  facile  and  decorative 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE    415 

(Fig.  229).  The  Jesuits,  who  led  in  the  reactionary  religious 
movement,  adhered  to  florid  Italian  models  in  their  churches 
in  other  countries,  and  thus  gave  the  baroque  an  international 
character  as  the  "Jesuit  style." 

Palaces.     In  the  town  palaces  the  principal  innovations  of 
the    post-Renaissance    period    lay    in    planning.     Vestibule, 


FIG.    229 — ROME. 


SAN  CARLO  A    CATINARI. 
(RICCl) 


CHAPEL  OF  SANTA  CECILIA' 


court,  and  stairs  were  no  longer  isolated,  but  combined  in  a 
suite  which  gave  unity  to  the  entire  building.  Genoese 
examples,  like  the  University  (1623),  are  the  most  notable. 
Many  palaces,  such  as  that  of  the  Barberini  in  Rome,  have 
more  than  a  single  file  of  rooms  in  a  block  and  a  multitude  of 
stairways  which  permit  independent  access  and  privacy.  The 
stereotyped  plan  with  a  single  central  court  was  no  longer 
followed  exclusively,  and  the  courts  were  no  longer  always 
inclosed,  but  opened  on  one  side  toward  either  street  or 


416        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

garden.  This  was  the  case,  for  instance,  with  the  court  of 
the  Palazzo  Pitti  in  Florence,  executed  by  Ammanati  in  1526. 

Villas.  The  characteristic  creation  of  the  period  in  domestic 
architecture  was  the  villa,  in  which  house  and  garden  were  now 
inextricably  combined.  Usually  on  hillside  sites,  and  with  an 
abundant  supply  of  water,  the  villas  included  a  series  of 
terraces,  steps,  pools,  and  fountains,  all  highly  organized  in 
accordance  with  a  unified  axial  system.  The  house  or  casino 
might  be  either  at  the  top  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  slope,  or 
even  part  way  between;  there  might  be  a  level  parterre  of 
flowers,  or  terraces  only,  as  the  ground  permitted.  A  char- 
acteristic example  of  artful  variety  within  modest  dimensions 
is  the  Villa  Lante  near  Viterbo,  designed  by  Vignola  (begun 
1566,  Fig.  230).  Here  a  parterre  with  a  central  fountain  and 
basins  occupies  the  lower  third  of  the  length.  To  left  and 
right  of  the  first  ascent  stand  the  two  casinos  which  provide 
the  living  quarters,  and  above  rise  terraces  of  differing  widths 
and  heights,  connected  on  the  main  axis  by  features  in  which 
steps  and  falling  water  are  ingeniously  intermingled.  Ramps 
and  stairs  offer  numerous  alternative  means  of  ascent  and 
descent.  The  Villa  Pia  in  the  gardens  of  the  Vatican,  with  its 
oval  court  and  curved  ramps,  is  another  such  unexampled 
background  for  the  art  of  living  (Fig.  222  E). 

Fountains.  Fountains  occurred  not  only  in.  the  villas  but 
everywhere  in  the  cities,  multiplied  and  diversified  as  never 
before.  For  large  volumes  of  water  or  small,  for  high  pressures 
or  low  alike,  treatments  were  found  which  gave  the  water 
itself  the  chief  place  in  the  design,  however  rich  and  free  the 
architecture  or  sculpture. 

Theaters.  A  novel  problem  in  modern  times  was  to  give 
an  architectural  treatment  to  the  theater.  The  classical 
precedents  suggested  to  Palladio,  for  his  Teatro  Olimpico  in 
Vicenza  (1580),  a  close  imitation  of  the  interior  of  a  Roman 
theater,  with  cavea,  encircling  colonnade  at  the  rear,  and 
architectural  sccetue  frons.  An  addition  quite  in  the  spirit  of 
the  time  was  that  of  constructed  architectural  perspectives 
visible  through  openings  of  the  stage.  The  theater  at  Parma 
(1618)  has  a  deeper  auditorium  and  a  single  wide  opening  to 
a  stage  for  movable  scenery.  Equally  significant  is  the 
replacing  of  the  rear  colonnade  by  arcades  in  two  stories. 


4i8        A   HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

From  these  grew  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  tiers  of  indi- 
vidual loges  which  still  form  the  characteristic  treatment 
of  the  Italian  theater  interior.  No  attempt  to  secure  an 
exterior  expression  was  yet  made. 

Town  planning.  An  ultimate  extension  of  baroque  prin- 
ciples was  the  inclusion  of  the  whole  city  in  a  single  architect- 
ural composition.  Efforts  of  the  sort  had  mostly  to  remain 
in  the  ideal  stage,  like  the  Citia  Ideale  of  Bartolomeo 
Ammanati  (1511-92)  whose  Ponte  Santa  Trinita  in  Florence 
inaugurated  a  new  lightness  and  grace  in  bridge  building. 
Less  fantastic  than  the  cities  on  paper,  but  still  ambitious, 
were  the  corrections  undertaken  in  existing  cities,  above  all  in 
Rome.  These,  which  had  been  begun  in  a  small  way  by  Julius 
II.,  were  continued  on  a  vast  scale  by  his  successors.  They 
included  the  Piazza  of  Saint  Peter's  and  the  Piazza  del  Popolo, 
both  begun  by  Bernini  about  1656,  the  Spanish  Steps,  and  the 
port  of  Ripetta  on  the  Tiber.  In  all  these  there  appear  the 
grandiose  unity  and  variety  of  form  so  characteristic  of  the 
period. 

Individual  forms.  The  governing  conception  of  the  post- 
Renaissance  period  in  Italy  was  that  each  individual  element 
was  but  a  fragment,  and  that  a  high  degree  of  unity  in  the 
parts  was  damaging  to  the  unity  of  the  whole.  This  concep- 
tion was  essentially  in  conflict  with  the  antique  conception 
of  unity,  which  did  not  preclude  parts  sufficient  unto  them- 
selves. It  thus  came  about  that  the  structural  expressiveness 
of  many  forms  had  to  yield  to  the  imperative  demand  for 
dismemberment  and  coalescence.  Thus  as  in  Roman  archi- 
tecture, by  comparison  with  Greek,  purity  of  detail  was 
rendered  less  important  by  the  mode  of  composition. 

Walls.  The  period  in  Italy  was  distinguished  by  a  wide  use 
of  stucco,  not  only  for  wall  surfaces,  as  in  the  Renaissance, 
but  for  all  the  members  of  openings  and  orders.  This 
extension  of  its  use  resulted  in  the  first  instances  from  economy, 
but  it  was  turned  to  advantage  in  the  execution  of  luxuriant 
modeled  decoration.  Rustication  was  rarely  used  except  in 
quoins  or  about  the  openings.  In  interiors  the  incrustation 
of  walls  with  marble  veneering  was  revived,  inlaid  patterns 
giving  a  striking  contrast. 

Openings.     In  the  enframement  of  the  openings  few  Italian 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE    419 

designers  followed  the  practice  of  Palladio  in  retaining  a 
simple  rectangular  architrave,  perhaps  with  a  frieze  and 
cornice.  Even  Palladio  himself  multiplied  ears  and  consoles 
and  employed  a  bulging  or  pulvinated  frieze.  His  con- 
temporaries were  already  elaborating  enframements  with 
rusticated  architraves,  broken  pediments,  and  herms  or 
figure  sculpture,  which  soon  became  the  rule. 

Columns  and  wall  membering.  The  general  relations  of 
column,  arch,  and  wall  remained  much  the  same  as  in  the 
Renaissance  period,  except  for  the  frequent  use  of  a  "colossal " 
engaged  order.  Free-standing  colonnades  with  horizontal 
lintels  appear  but  seldom,  although  notably  in  the  Piazza,  of 
Saint  Peter's.  Columns  bearing  arches  remained  in  favor  for 
courtyards,  but  the  supports  were  now  usually  grouped  in 
pairs,  a  motive  especially  favored  by  Alessi.  In  the  membering 
of  facades  the  tendency  toward  grouping  the  members,  which 
had  begun  with  the  coupled  columns  of  Bramante,  was  carried 
much  further.  The  pilaster  was  reinforced  by  slight  breaks 
in  the  wall  at  either  side,  or  groups  of  shafts  and  pilasters 
were  composed,  like  the  grouped  piers  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  interiors  these  once  more  gave  individual  support  to  the 
various  members  of  a  vault,  on  exteriors  they  served,  with 
the  corresponding  breaks  in  entablatures  and  balustrades,  to 
enliven  the  silhouette. 

Stairs.  A  special  production  of  the  period  was  the  monu- 
mental stairway,  either  inside  a  building  or  outside.  Michel- 
angelo's stairways  at  the  Laurentian  Library  and  at  the  Capitol 
gave  the  suggestion,  which  was  quickly  taken  up  in  many 
different  ways.  Thus,  in  the  Villa  d'Este  at  Tivoli  (about 
1550),  the  two  arms  of  a  symmetrical  stairway  are  bent  into 
semicircles;  at  the  Villa  di  Papa  Giulio,  into  quadrants. 
Then  followed  the  stairs  with  two  arms  side  by  side,  and  with 
three  arms  winding  up  against  the  walls  of  a  rectangular 
room  as  in  the  Palazzo  Barberini  (about  1630).  Further 
possibilities  lay  in  a  symmetrical  doubling  of  these  schemes, 
first,  attempted  in  the  cloister  of  San  Giorgio  Maggiore  in 
Venice  by  .Longhena  ( 1 644) .  In  the  Genoese  palaces  the  stairs 
through  several  stories  were  brought  into  a  single  composition 
by  the  breaking  through  of  all  surrounding  walls,  and  the 
carrying  of  the  upper  flights  on  bridge-like  vaults. 


420        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Spain.  Academic  architecture.  The  conquest  of  the  Indies 
made  Spain,  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
greatest  power  in  Europe.  Philip  II.  gave  expression  to  this 


FIG.    231 — THE   ESCURIAL.      PLAN 


power  by  the  building  of  the  Escurial  (1563-84),  comprising 
a  votive  church  and  mausoleum,  monastery,  and  palace,  with 
every  needful  dependency  for  the  service  of  both  church  and 
state  (Figs.  231,  232).  Its  building  lay  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   421 

Juan  de  Herrera  (1530-97),  whose  work,  severely  academic 
in  its  forms,  established  the  post-Renaissance  tendencies  in 
Spain.  In  the  Patio  of  the  Evangelists,  to  be  sure,  he  em- 
ployed the  Roman  arch  order  with  equal  bays  and  unbroken 
entablatures,  but  elsewhere  the  membering  abounds  in  the 


FIG.    232 — THE   ESCURIAL 

complex  grouping  of  supports,  the  breaking  of  horizontal 
members,  the  uniting  of  interior  spaces  by  penetrating  vaults, 
and  the  multiplication  of  aspects  in  perspective  by  the  com- 
bination of  dome  and  towers. 

•Baroque  supremacy.  Herrera's  sobriety  was  soon  super- 
seded by  baroque  freedom,  which  ultimately  in  the  hands  of 
Joje"  Churriguera  (1650-1723)  became  the  boldest  license. 
The  national  traditions  of  the  Plateresque  were  reflected  in 
the  "  Churrigueresque  "  style,  which  paid  less  attention  to  the 


422        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


creation  of  new  forms  of  plan  and  space  than  to  the  luxuriant 
elaboration  of  detail.  It  reached  its  fullest  development  in 
the  great  portals  and  altar-pieces,  such  as  the  high  altar  of 
the  church  of  El  Salvador  in  Seville  (Fig.  233). 

Reaction.     The  accession  of  the  Bourbons  in  1714,  which 
marked  the  end  of  Spanish  domination  in  politics,  brought 

also  a  subordination 
of  Spanish  tenden- 
cies in  art.  The 
palaces  of  the  new 
rulers  at  La  Gran j  a 
and  Madrid  imitated 
not  only  the  world- 
liness  of  Versailles 
but  its  architectural 
formalism.  The 
baroque  tendency, 
which  comported  so 
well  with  national 
sympathies,  per- 
sisted nevertheless, 
now  creating  novel 
forms  of  interior 
space,  and  still  fill- 
ing the  framework  of 
the  orders  with  an 
exuberance  of  orna- 
ment. 

France.  In  France 
there  came  first  a 
brief  period  of 
baroque  supremacy. 
This  was  of  rela- 
tively short  duration,  however;  a  compromise  was  soon 
reached,  and  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  academic  ten- 
dency came!  earlier  than  in  Italy  and  was  more  complete. 
Even  during  the  years  of  compromise  the  academic  ten- 
dency predominated,  although  in  the  later  of  them  the 
freer  tendency  once  more  asserted  itself  vigorously,  in  the 
phase  known  as  the  rococo.  The  conventional  subdivision 


FIG.   233 — SEVILLE.      ALTAR   OF   THE    CHURCH 
OF   EL   SALVADOR.       (SCHUBERT) 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   423 

of  the  period  in  France  into  phases  designated  by  the  names 
of  the  kings  conforms  tolerably  well  with  this  development, 
although  the  duration  of  the  phases  by  no  means  corresponds 
exactly  to  that  of  the  reigns.  In  general  the  baroque  su- 
premacy may  be  identified  with  the  style  of  Henry  IV.  and 
Louis  XIII. ;  the  compromise,  in  its  earlier  and  stricter  form, 
with  the  style  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  its  later  and  freer  form,  with 
that  of  Louis  XV.;  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  academic, 
with  the  style  of  Louis  XVI. 

Establishment  of  academic  and  baroque  tendencies.  Already 
in  the  later  work  of  native  masters  of  the  High  Renaissance, 
as  we  have  seen,  there  were  signs  of  the  appearance  of  post- 
Renaissance  tendencies.  On  one  hand  De  1'Orme  and  Bullant 
had  written  treatises  discussing  the  proper  form  and  propor- 
tions of  classical  members.  On  the  other  hand  De  1'Orme 
and  Du  Cerceau  had  employed  at  the  Tuileries  and  at  Charle- 
val  many  of  the  forms  of  the  school  of  Michelangelo,  such  as  the 
herm,  the  rusticated  architrave,  and  the  broken  pediment. 

Baroque  supremacy.  Henry  IV.  With  the  resumption  of 
building  under  Henry  IV.  after  the  religious  wars  (about  1600), 
the  strict  classical  forms  had  everywhere  yielded  to  those  of 
the  triumphant  baroque  of  the  day  in  Italy.  It  was  rarely, 
however,  that  baroque  principles  governed  the  whole  composi- 
tion. In  the  typical  buildings  of  the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  only 
the  details  of  the  baroque  were  applied  to  the  simplest 
rectangular  masses.  A  combination  of  brick  and  stone  came 
in  through  the  close  affiliation  with  Protestant  Holland. 
Examples  of  these  characteristics  are  Henry  IV. 's  additions 
to  Fontainebleau,  as  well  as  his  buildings  about  the  Place 
Royale  and  the  Place  Dauphine  in  Paris.  All  these  have  a 
simple  treatment  of  rusticated  quoins  at  the  corners  and  at 
the  openings,  with  occasional  use  of  consoles,  rusticated  archi- 
traves, and  broken  pediments  at  small  scale.  The  internal 
decoration  went  much  further  toward  Italian  freedom.  In  the 
treatment  of  doors  and  chimneys,  enframements  were  doubled, 
members  broken  and  interwoven,  consoles  and  cartouches 
multiplied.  Other  developments  which  recall  contemporary 
Italian  movements  lay  in  planning.  At  Saint  Germain, 
Du  Perac  built  for  Henry  a  series  of  vast  terraces  and  steps 
recalling  those  of  the  Villa  d'Este.  For  the  improvement 


424        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

of  Paris,  which  henceforth  became  the  focus  of  national  life, 
the  king  laid  out  the  two  great  squares  already  mentioned. 
They  were  surrounded  by  buildings  of  unified  design — the 
first  of  a  long  series  of  similar  enterprises  in  town  planning. 

Louis  XIII.  Under  Louis  XIII.  (1610-43)  the  baroque 
influence  still  preponderated,  although  to  a  degree  which 
gradually  decreased.  A  more  frequent  use  was  again  made  of 
the  orders,  and  the  baroque  elements  were  confined  within  the 
fields  marked  out  by  them.  The  leading  architect  of  the 
earlier  years  of  the  reign  was  Salomon  de  Brosse  (d.  1626). 
For  Catherine  de'  Medici  he  built  the  Luxembourg  Palace 
(1616-20),  which  she  wished  to  resemble  the  Pitti  Palace  in 
Florence.  The  drawings  which  she  secured  from  Italy  did 
indeed  have  their  influence,  for  there  were  many  points  of  simi- 
larity between  the  work  of  De  Brosse  and  that  of  Ammanati. 
The  open  court,  the  superposed  rusticated  orders,  the 
rusticated  arches,  flat  and  semicircular,  as  well  as  the  rigidity 
of  the  architectural  framework,  all  reappeared.  The  general 
grouping  and  the  broken  silhouette  of  the  palace,  with  its 
many  pavilions  and  high  roofs,  were,  of  course,  wholly  French. 
In  De  Brosse's  facade  for  the  Gothic  church  of  Saint  Gervais 
he  also  showed  the  influence  of  the  freer  Italian  tendency  as 
exemplified  in  the  Gesu,  which  furnished  the  model  for  most 
later  French  church  facades.  The  conservative  French 
tendencies  were  represented  by  the  earlier  designs  of  Jacques 
Lemercier  (1585-1654).  His  enlargement  of  the  court  of  the 
Louvre  (1624-30)  was  on  the  system  established  by  Lescot, 
with  the  addition  of  a  few  baroque  elements;  his  vast  sym- 
metrical chateau  of  Richelieu  depended  solely,  for  its  wall 
treatment,  on  rusticated  enframements  with  a  filling  of  stucco. 

Reaction.  In  the  later  years  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII. 
there  was  already  a  strengthening  of  the  academic  tendency 
which  resulted  in  compromise.  That  this  should  have  been  so 
at  the  very  moment  when  the  baroque  in  Italy  was  receiving 
its  greatest  development  was  due  to  several  causes.  Among 
these  perhaps  the  strongest  was  the  growing  tendency  of 
France  toward  absolutism  and  organization  in  every  field — 
the  monarchy,  the  church,  the  arts  in  general.  An  instance 
was  the  founding  of  the  French  Academy  (1635),  having  for 
its  object  "to  give  certain  rules  to  our  language  and  to  render 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE    425 

it  pure."  Similar  in  its  direction  was  the  fundamental  French 
belief  in  "reason"  and  "good  sense,"  more  sympathetic  with 
the  logic  of  the  Italian  academists  than  with  the  emotional 
liberty  of  the  baroque  masters.  The  renewed  imitation  of 
classical  models  in  the  drama,  beginning  with  Corneille  about 
1635,  coincides  with. the  return  to  the  stricter  following  of 
classical  forms  in  architecture.  The  Frenchmen  who  went  to 
Rome  no  longer  studied  contemporary  architecture  so  much  as 


FIG.   234 — BLOIS.      WING  OF   GASTON   D'ORLEANS 

the  work  of  the  High  Renaissance  masters,  with  whom  they 
shared  a  direct  interest  in  Roman  buildings.  The  academic 
writings  of  the  Italians  were  diligently  read  and  compared. 
Fre*art  de  Chambray,  who  had  been  sent  to  Rome  in  1640, 
published  the  first  complete  translation  of  Palladio  (1650), 
and  also  a  parallel  of  the  canons  of  ten  of  the  principal  theorists. 
Compromise.  Francois  Mansart.  Style  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
leader  in  the  return  to  academic  purity  in  architectural  prac- 
tice was  Francois  Mansart  (1598-1666).  His  wing  for  Gaston 
d' Orleans  in  the  chateau  of  Blois  (1635-40)  depends  for  its 


426        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

effect  almost  solely  on  the  proportions  and  the  sober  member- 
ing  of  the  superposed  orders  (Fig.  234).  Except  for  an 
increase  in  the  height  of  the  entrance  pavilion  and  for  the 
single  cartouche  in  the  center,  all  the  architectural  lines,  even 
those  of  the  roofs,  carry  through  without  interruption.  Rusti- 
cation and  dormers  are  alike  absent,  and  baroque  influence 
appears  only  in  the  decorative  carving.  Mansart's  purism 
in  the  use  of  the  orders  persisted  in  his  work  at  the  church  of 
the  Val-de-Grace  in  Paris  (begun  1645),  although  the  general 
scheme  is  that  of  the  baroque  churches  of  Italy,  and  baroque 
consoles  occur  both  in  the  facade  and  in  the  dome.  Hence- 
forth, throughout  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  compromise 
between  academic  and  baroque  tendencies  prevailed  on  much 
the  same  terms.  On  the  exterior,  and  even  in  the  larger 
membering  of  the  interior,  the  academic  framework  dominated 
the  design;  baroque  forms  were  confined  to  the  decoration. 

Le  Vau.  A  step  beyond  Mansart  in  the  direction  of 
pronounced  post-Renaissance  character  was  taken  by  Louis 
Le  Vau  (1612-70)  who  was  the  court  architect  after  the  death 
of  Lemercier.  Whereas  Mansart  used  always  an  order  to 
each  story,  Le  Vau  rarely  failed  to  introduce  a  "colossal 
order,"  rising  from  a  low  plinth  to  the  main  cornice.  This 
was,  indeed,  no  new  thing  in  French  architecture,  but  it  was 
a  feature  which  had  fallen  into  disuse  during  the  baroque 
supremacy.  Le  Vau  employed  it  in  the  chateau  of  Vaux-le- 
Vicomte,  in  the  south  facade  of  the  Louvre  (1664),  and  in  the 
College  des  Quatre  Nations  (1660-68).  In  all  these  cases, 
however,  only  one  or  more  pavilions  have  the  large  order  and 
the  rest  of  the  building  is  treated  with  superposed  orders  or 
no  order  at  all. 

The  Louvre.  Perrault.  For  the  principal  front  of  the 
Louvre  it  was  felt  that  something  grander  was  necessary. 
After  the  rejection  of  many  designs  by  native  architects,  it 
was  finally  decided  to  summon  Bernini  from  Rome.  His 
design,  produced  in  1665,  involved  the  destruction  of  much  of 
the  existing  building.  It  proposed  the  rebuilding  of  the  court 
with  a  single  gigantic  order  rising  from  the  ground,  and  the 
treatment  of  the  exterior  with  an  order  of  equally  large  scale, 
raised  on  a  rusticated  basement.  The  execution  of  this 
scheme  was  soon  abandoned  as  impossibly  extravagant,  and 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE    427 

a  new  design  was  prepared  by  Claude  Perrault,  a  savant  who 
had  turned  his  attention  to  architecture.  He  profited  by  the 
lesson  Bernini  had  given  in  unity  of  design  and  largeness  of 
scale,  but  adapted  his  facade  better  to  the  existing  work  and 
gave  it  a  more  uniform  membering  and  proportions  (Fig. 
235).  Like  Bernini  he  placed  a  large  Corinthian  order,  in- 


PIG.    235 — PARIS.      COLONNADE   OF   THE   LOUVRE 


eluding  the  two  upper  stories,  over  a  basement  the  height  of 
the  ground  story,  and  used  a  flat  roof  behind  a  balustrade. 
Unlike  Bernini,  however,  and  indeed  for  the  first  time  in 
modern  architecture,  he  did  not  merely  decorate  the  wall  with 
an  engaged  order,  but  employed  a  free  standing  colonnade  in 
front  of  it,  like  that  of  a  peristylar  temple.  He  followed  De 
Brosse  and  Mansart  in  employing  coupled  columns,  but  gave 
them  larger  scale  and  more  Roman  detail.  He  also  gave  a 
new  impress  to  the  five-part  scheme  for  long  fagades.  This 
had  grown  up  in  France  from  the  medieval  castle  with  its 
corner  towers  and  central  gate-house,  and  had  so  far  pre- 
served a  medieval  massing.  Perrault  treated  it  with  but 


428        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

slight  projection  to  all  the  pavilions,  and  with  a  pediment  over 
the  central  one — a  formula  which  has  remained  usual  to 
this  day. 

The  academies.  The  predominance  of  principles  of  law  and 
order  based  upon  the  antique  was  fortified  by  the  formation 
in  167 1  of  the  Academy  of  Architecture,  to  complete  the  system 
of  organization  begun  in  literature  by  the  founding  of  the 
Academie  Fran$aise.  A  further  reinforcement  of  classical 


FIG.   236 — VERSAILLES.      THE    PALACE    FROM    THE    PLACE    D'ARMES 


influence  came  through  the  establishment  on  a  regular  footing 
of  the  custom  of  sending  promising  artists  to  complete  their 
studies  in  Rome.  Thus  arose  the  French  Academy  in  Rome, 
chartered  in  1677. 

Versailles.  J.  H.  Mansart.  From  the  commencement  of 
his  personal  administration  in  1661,  Louis  XIV.  began  the 
development  of  the  chateau  built  for  his  father  at  Versailles, 
for  which  he  had  a  special  preference.  Ultimately  he  made  it 
his  permanent  residence  and  the  seat  of  his  government.  The 
original  chateau,  a  simple  structure  of  brick  and  stone,  had  to 
be  many  times  enlarged,  although  it  retained  much  of  its 
original  aspect  toward  the  fore-court,  and  inevitably  had  an 
influence  on  the  scale  of  the  later  work  (Fig.  236).  The 
extensions,  begun  by  Le  Vau,  were  completed  by  Jules 
Hardouin  Mansart,  a  great-nephew  of  Francois.  The  system 
of  membering  finally  adopted  for  the  long  unbroken  facades 


ri 


**,,--'*** 
SE0H 


» I J 

»  -  •  -      5     '  *  *  >-^-»»*l¥  tf««At"vf1-¥V^~'~^l1| 

•H^TTp'^tTflJII  jl  I  i'l  Liilill^ltlli ! " 

•  M^?  I    I      i    j_  I'll' 1 1     •  ''fel'I^rSt^^^Htj 

P^li'l     | 

•i(  il;l  I 

"     •.  •      4 

:    ^ 


i^HffisPilraiiif 

»PELl',liiHiiiTtllHiii!llll«ul  i 

isL^ljT^*^--********^*****^-— J 
*^v~  »  u « 


430        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

toward  the  garden  was  that  of  a  rusticated  basement,  an  order, 
and  an 'attic  with  balustrade.  The  interest  of  the  building, 
however,  lies  less  in  the  architectural  treatment  of  the  exterior 
than  in  the  plan,  with  its  multiplicity  of  functions  (Fig.  237). 
The  problem  was  to  provide  quarters  not  only  for  the  king  and 
the  princes  of  the  blood,  but  also  for  the  entire  court,  with 
offices  for  the  ministers,  provisions  for  service,  immense 
stables,  a  chapel,  and  ultimately  a  theater.  In  addition  there 
were,  on  one  side,  the  garden  and  park,  on  the  other  side,  the 
town,  newly  founded — both  alike  symmetrical  on  the  main 
axis  of  the  palace.  Never  before,  even  at  the  Escurial,  had 
there  been  a  single  composition  on  such  a  vast  scale.  The 
interior  decoration  was  of  a  corresponding  richness.  Here, 
more  than  on  the  exterior,  appeared  the  baroque  elements 
which  still  characterized  contemporary  architecture.  Thus  in 
the  ceiling  of  the  long  Galerie  des  Glaces,  decorated  by  Charles 
Le  Brun  (Fig.  238),  there  was  an  abundance  of  broken  pedi- 
ments, consoles,  and  free  sculpture.  In  extent  and  luxurious- 
ness  alike,  Versailles  established  an  ideal  which  every  prince 
in  Europe  soon  dreamed  of  realizing. 

Outbreak  of  the  free  tendency.  Louis  XV.  Rococo.  The 
extreme  formality  imposed  on  life  and  art  by  Louis  XIV. 
provoked  a  new  outbreak  of  the  free  tendency  under  his 
successor.  It  took  many  suggestions  from  the  late  Italian 
baroque  of  Borromini  and  his  followers,  which  had  hitherto 
been  little  favored  in  France.  The  earliest  and  most  pro- 
nounced manifestations  of  the  movement  occur  in  interior 
decoration.  Curves  were  multiplied  both  in  plan  and  in 
elevation;  architectural  lines  were  broken  and  were  over- 
flowed by  sculpture.  The  pompous  apparatus  of  column  and 
entablature  was  banished  from  interiors,  and  replaced  by  a 
more  delicate  and  intimate  treatment  with  panels,  cartouches, 
and  floriated  scrolls  (Fig.  242).  The  prevalence  of  shell-work 
or  rocaille  led  to  the  designation  rococo,  applied  loosely  to  all 
the  work  of  free  tendencies  which  resulted  from  the  new 
movement.  Efforts  were  not  wanting  to  remodel  external 
architecture  on  similar  lines.  In  many  of  the  designs  of 
J.  A.  Meissonier  (1693-1750)  vertical  and  horizontal  members 
are  alike  abandoned  in  favor  of  flowing  reverse  curves.  In 
France,  however,  this  extreme  was  not  reached  in  the  exterior 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   431 

of  any  building  actually  executed.  The  orders  were  retained 
on  the  facade,  with  only  a  slightly  greater  liberty  of  detail. 
The  spirit  of  freedom  showed  itself  on  the  exterior  mainly  by 
an  increased  use  of  curved  and  angular  elements  of  plan,  and 
by  an  exuberance  of  ornament  within  the  bays  and  above  the 
cornice.  All  these  characteristics  are  specially  well  exemplified 


FIG.   238 — VERSAILLES.      THE   GALERIE   DBS   GLACES 

in  the  notable  group  of  buildings  erected  for  Stanislas,  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  at  Nancy  (1750-57). 

Academic  victory.  Louis  XVI.  Contemporary  with  the 
later  years  of  the  rococo  and  well  within  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
there  was  a  new  reaction  against  the  extravagance  of  the  free 
tendency,  associated  with  the  name  of  his  successor.  The 
design  of  Servadony  for  the  fagade  of  Saint  Sulpice  in  Paris 
(1732-45)  showed  in  its  two  lower  stories  of  columns  and  arches 
a  classical  strictness  and  majesty  unusual  at  the  time,  and  a 
similar  character  appeared  in  the  H6tel  Dieu  by  Soufflot  at 
Lyons  (1737).  In  the  work  of  Jacques  Anges  Gabriel,  falling 
in  the  years  1752  to  i77o,the  tendency  won  a  complete  victory, 


432        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

and  the  academic  system  received  its  ultimate  development. 
Gabriel's  designs  for  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  (Fig.  239), 
for  the  Ecole  Militaire  in  Paris,  the  Palace  at  Compiegne,  the 
Theater  at  Versailles,  and  the  Petit  Trianon  (Fig.  240)  form 
a  body  of  work  unrivaled  for  the  purity  of  academic  detail 
and  ornament.  In  most  of  them  he  followed  the  scheme 
consecrated  by  Perrault — an  order  embracing  two  stories 


FIG.  239 — PARIS.   PLACE  DE  LA  CONCORDE 

above  a  high  basement.  In  the  handling  of  the  order  itself, 
in  some  cases,  he  secured  Perrault's  touch  of  Roman  magnifi- 
cence. Often  he  restricted  the  order  to  the  principal  pavilion, 
and  left  the  remaining  walls  unbroken  except  by  the  slender 
and  elegant  window  enframements.  Before  the  accession 
of  Louis  XVI.  even  the  interiors  of  buildings  had  lost  their 
luxuriant  freedom.  At  the  same  time  there  began  a  change 
in  character,  both  within  and  without,  due  to  the  literal 
imitation  of  classical  motives,  which  brought  rococo  and 
academic  movements  alike  to  an  end. 

Types  of  buildings.  Chateaux.  The  close  of  the  religious 
wars  once  more  made  it  safe  to  live  in  the  country,  and  per- 
mitted a  new  and  freer  development  of  the  chateau.  From  this 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   433 

time  until  Louis  XIV.  made  constant  residence  at  court  a 
necessity,  the  nobility  built  many  chateaux  which  correspond 
to  the  countless  manor  houses  of  England.  While  some  of 
the  larger  of  these  retained  the  inclosed  court,  the  tendency 
was  to  omit  the  block  on  the  fourth  side  and  to  shorten  the 
arms,  so  that  in  many  of  the  smaller  examples  only  the  main 


FIG.    24O — VERSAILLES.      PETIT   TRIANON 


block  was  left.  On  the  other  hand  the  main  block  itself  was 
made  thicker,  with  a  double  file  of  rooms,  so  that  it  was  no 
longer  necessary  to  traverse  private  apartments.  The  main 
staircase,  which  in  Frangois  Mansart's  designs  still  occupied 
the  center,  was  pushed  to  one  side  in  favor  of  a  monumental 
vestibule.  The  functions  of  rooms  became  increasingly 
specialized.  The  salon  or  reception-room  now  made  its 
appearance,  and  was  accorded  the  place  of  honor  in  the  center, 
facing  the  gardens.  From  the  time  of  Le  Vau  it  was  given  an 
elliptical  form,  projecting  so  that  it  commanded  a  view  to  the 
sides  as  well.  The  regime  established  by  Louis  XIV.  affected 


434        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

chateaux  in  two  opposite  ways.  On  one  hand,  at  Versailles, 
it  magnified  the  chateau  into  the  modern  palace.  On  the 
other  hand  it  produced  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  palace  a 
number  of  small  but  elegant  chateaux  serving  as  retreats  for 
recreation  or  privacy,  like  the  casinos  of  the  Italian  villas. 
Marly,  the  Grand  Trianon,  and  the  Petit  Trianon  (Fig.  240) 
are  examples  showing  the  increasing  desire  for  intimacy,  which 
ultimately  resulted  in  the  rustic  hamlet  of  Marie  Antoinette. 

Gardens.  The  gardens  themselves  were  given  a  new  and 
magnificent  treatment.  This  was  inaugurated  by  Andre  le 
Ndtre  at  Vaux  and  developed  by  him  at  Versailles  and  the 
other  royal  residences.  It  involved  a  general  increase  in 
scale,  the  introduction  of  canals,  basins,  cascades,  and  foun- 
tains of  great  size,  and  an  extension  of  the  garden  scheme  over 
all  the  neighboring  countryside  by  means  of  a  system  of 
radiating  and  intersecting  allees.  The  reaction  from  splendor 
apparent  in  the  building  of  the  Trianon  had  later  its  expression 
in  the  gardens.  The  informal  or  landscape  garden  of  England 
was  adopted,  as  a  more  fitting  milieu  for  the  playful  phases 
of  court  life. 

Hotels.  The  development  of  Paris  into  a  national  metrop- 
olis gave  an  impetus  to  the  development  of  the  city  resi- 
dence or  hotel,  which  often  rivaled  a  chateau  in  the  extent 
of  its  court  and  gardens.  The  ambitious  examples,  large  and 
small  alike,  preserved  the  fore-court  and  screen  toward  the 
street,  with  the  living-rooms  in  a  block  facing  the  garden  at 
the  rear.  The  same  internal  changes  in  the  direction  of 
greater  convenience  took  place  in  the  hotel  as  in  the  chateau. 
Great  ingenuity  was  exercised  in  making  separate  provision 
for  all  the  varied  functions  of  the  establishment,  often  on 
limited  and  irregular  sites.  Stables  and  service  quarters  were 
provided  with  subsidiary  courts  of  their  own,  where  the 
dimensions  at  all  permitted.  The  minor  houses  on  narrow  lots 
were  also  given  the  architectural  expression  in  classic  forms 
which  has  governed  the  aspect  of  cities  to  this  day.  Some- 
times whole  ranges  of  houses  were  treated  uniformly  as  the 
surrounding  walls  of  a  monumental  square;  at  other  times 
there  was  but  a  single  facade,  usually  of  three  bays.  In 
either  case  the  favorite  division  of  height,  a  basement  story 
with  two  others  above,  corresponding  to  an  order,  was  adopted. 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   435 

As  land  values  rose,  apartment  houses  in  four  and  more  stories 
were  built,  conforming  to  the  same  architectural  scheme,  but 
with  mezzanines  and  attics. 

Churches.  The  church  in  France  during  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  was  less  significant  than  either  the 
state  or  society,  yet  a  certain  number  of  notable  religious 
buildings  were  undertaken.  The  parish  churches  had  the 
basilican  plan,  as  well  as  the  fagade  in  two  stories  with  consoles 
or  twin  towers,  characteristic  of  contemporary  basilican 
churches  in  Italy.  The  more  important  churches  of  the  time 
were  those  which  either  had  a  votive  character,  like  the  Val-de- 
Grace  (begun  1645),  or  were  chapels  attached  to  an  institution, 
like  the  churches  of  the  Sorbonne  (1635-53),  the  College  des 
Quatre  Nations  (1660-68),  and  the  H6pital  des  Invalides 
(1692-1704).  They  were  thus  relatively  free  from  liturgical 
restrictions  and  could  fulfil  their  monumental  functions 
through  the  adoption  of  a  dome.  All  four  of  these  just 
mentioned  have  the  high  drum  and  external  silhouette  in- 
augurated by  Saint  Peter's.  The  Sorbonne  and  the  Val-de- 
Grace,  both  of  which  have  basilican  naves,  have  two-storied 
facades  like  those  of  the  basilican  churches.  In  the  new 
chapel  of  the  Invalides  this  scheme  was  retained  even  though 
the  church  was  a  composition  of  purely  central  type,  without 
aisles  or  galleries.  Only  at  the  College  des  Quatre  Nations 
was  the  single  order  employed.  The  plans  of  all  these  domed 
churches  offer  interesting  examples  of  the  tendencies  of  post- 
Renaissance  days  toward  the  multiplying  of  interrelations 
between  the  parts,  rather  than  the  preserving  of  their  indi- 
vidual unity.  At  Versailles  there  were  special  reasons  why 
a  dome  could  not  be  introduced.  The  palace  chapel  had  to 
yield  the  axial  position  to  the  state  bedroom  of  the  king,  and 
thus  could  not  receive  a  development  which  would  injure  too 
much  the  symmetry  of  the  whole  group.  The  solution  adopted 
by  Mansart,  a  basilican  plan,  with  galleries  treated  as  tall 
colonnades  above  the  low  arcaded  aisles,  was  novel  in  church 
design,  yet  quite  in  accordance  with  the  general  formulae  of 
the  period. 

Ensembles.  Planning.  The  design  of  vast  unified  en- 
sembles, which  had  begun  in  French  architecture  with  De 
rOrme,  was  even  more  characteristic  of  the  post-Renaissance 


436        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

period.  The  great  chateaux  like  Versailles  and  the  Louvre 
were  not  the  only  examples.  The  Hdpital  des  Invalides  in 
Paris,  which  furnished  accommodation  for  six  thousand  dis- 
abled soldiers,  and  the  Ecole  Militaire,  also  on  an  enormous 
scale,  were  symmetrical  compositions  about  a  series  of  courts. 
The  systems  of  subordinated  axes  reached  a  high  degree  of 
organization,  as  in  the  vast  Roman  ensembles.  An  equal 
skill  was  shown  in  the  handling  of  diagonal  axes,  and  in  the 
union  of  elements  in  irregular  plans  by  means  of  circular  and 
elliptical  features. 

Town  planning.  The  creation  of  squares  surrounded  by 
private  buildings  of  uniform  design,  begun  by  Henry  IV.,  was 
continued  under  his  successors.  His  Place  Royale  and  Place 
Dauphine  were  both  rectangular  in  plan.  A  project  of  his 
which  was  never  realized,  however — the  Place  de  France — 
involved  a  semicircular  space  at  the  entrance  to  the  city,  with 
avenues  radiating  to  every  quarter.  A  similar  conception  was 
embodied  by  Louis  XIV.  in  the  circular  Place  des  Victoires 
(1684-86).  The  Place  Louis  le  Grand  or  Place  Vendome  was 
a  rectangle  diversified  by  the  cutting  off  of  the  corners  diago- 
nally, and  ornamented  by  engaged  columns  and  pediments  at 
the  axial  points.  The  Place  Louis  XV.,  or  Place  de  la  Con- 
corde, was  conceived,  like  these  last  two,  primarily  as  a  setting 
for  a  monument.  Its  buildings  occupy  only  one  side,  but  with 
their  free  standing  colonnades  like  those  of  the  Louvre  they 
have  a  richness  unapproached  in  the  other  examples.  In  the 
provincial  towns  squares  and  quais  were  also  treated  as  unified 
compositions;  at  Nancy  even  a  whole  series  of  squares  was 
brought  into  one  design,  comparable  in  extent  and  complexity 
to  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  fora.  Thus  was  expressed  the 
fondness  of  the  time  for  order  and  subordination,  as  well  a? 
for  the  absorption  of  individual  unities  in  a  larger  unity. 

Construction.  Except  for  the  period  of  Henry  IV.,  when 
Dutch  influence  caused  the  adoption  of  brick  even  in  some 
regions  where  stone  was  more  easily  obtainable,  stone  was 
used  almost  exclusively  in  monumental  constructions.  The 
softness  and  fine  texture  of  the  French  limestone  permitted 
carving  almost  as  free  and  delicate  as  if  in  marble.  Marble 
itself  was  used  but  seldom,  and  then  only  as  a  precious  adorn- 
ment, for  instance,  in  the  shafts  which  distinguish  the  central 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   437 

blocks  at  Versailles  and  Trianon.  The  ease  of  working  the 
stone,  as  well  as  the  geometrical  skill  of  the  French  builders, 
resulted  in  the  use  of  cut  stone  for  vaulting  to  an  extent  no- 
where else  approached.  The  science  of  stone-cutting  or 
stereotemy  was  thus  developed  to  the  highest  point. 

Details.  The  conception  of  general  unity  in  exterior  treat- 
ment was  not  often  pushed,  as  in  Italy,  to  the  destruction  of 
the  unity  of  single  details  such  as  the  enframements  of  doors 


FIG.   241 — PARIS.       PORTE   SAINT 
DENIS.      PRINCIPAL   FRONT 


FIG.  242 — VERSAILLES.  DE- 
TAIL OF  THE  APARTMENTS 
OK  LOUIS  XV. 


and  windows.  After  the  brief  period  of  baroque  supremacy 
such  details  followed  classical  or  Palladian  models  with  but 
little  modification,  and  equaled  them  in  harmony  of  propor- 
tion and  profiling.  The  spirit  of  the  time  appeared,  never- 
theless, in  the  fondness  for  the  use  of  ears  and  consoles,  and 
for  the  coupling  and  grouping  of  supports.  It  appeared  also 
in  the  frequent  use  of  transitional  members.  Thus  in  the 
facade  of  the  Petit  Trianon  (Fig.  240)  a  subordinate  break 
was  introduced  on  either  side  of  the  main  projecting  portico, 
and  a  similar  though  minute  break  was  made  in  the  architraves 
of  the  side  windows.  The  same  rationalistic  sentiment  which 
found  interrupted  pediments  repugnant  sometimes  demanded 
the  omission  of  the  orders  altogether  where  the  column  would 


438        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

not  fulfil  its  original  function  as  an  isolated  support.  An 
example  is  the  Porte  Saint  Denis  in  Paris  (Fig.  241),  in  which 
the  Roman  scheme  of  triumphal  arch  was  expurgated  by 
substituting  for  the  columns  large  tapering  panels  decorated 
with  sculptured  trophies.  This  distinctively  national 
tendency,  which  gradually  gained  strength  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  one  which  bore  much  fruit  in  the 
following  period. 

Interiors.  In  interiors  the  unity  of  design  between  wall 
treatment  and  furniture  was  a  novel  and  striking  feature. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  rococo,  indeed,  interior  unity  was 
carried  to  the  extreme — the  shape  of  the  room,  the  motives  of 
its  paneling  and  the  lines  of  the  furnishings  being  all  based 
on  similar  curves,  which  precluded  any  individual  self-suffi- 
ciency in  the  parts  (Fig.  242).  Under  Louis  XV.  and  Louis 
XVI.  the  desire  for  intimacy  led  to  a  reduction  in  the  size  and 
height  of  the  rooms,  in  which  elegance  was  sought  rather 
than  splendor. 

England:  baroque  supremacy.  Jacobean  architecture.  The 
first  of  the  post-Renaissance  forms  to  reach  England  were  the 
baroque  cartouches  and  strap-work  from  Germany,  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  were  lavished  on  buildings  still  fundamentally 
Gothic  in  their  disposition  (Fig.  218).  The  reign  of  James  I. 
(1603-25)  thus  constitutes  a  period  of  baroque  supremacy, 
analogous  to  that  of  Henry  IV.  in  France.  As  in  France,  also, 
this  baroque  predominance  was  brief,  and  was  soon  succeeded 
by  a  compromise  in  which  academic  elements  predominated. 

Introduction  of  academic  forms.  Inigo  Jones.  The  intro- 
duction of  academic  forms  into  England  was  essentially  the 
work  of  one  man,  Inigo  Jones  (1573-1652).  His  architectural 
career  began  after  a  journey  to  Italy  in  1613  and  1614  in  which 
he  visited  Rome  and  Vicenza,  studied  the  writings  of  Palladio 
and  others,  and  became  acquainted  with  Maderna  and  the 
other  foremost  contemporary  architects  of  Rome.  He  was 
thus  subjected  both  to  the  academic  influence  and  to  the 
baroque,  and  both  affected  his  work.  The  resulting  com- 
promise, however,  was  not,  as  in  France,  one  based  on  the 
forms  already  in  use  in  the  country,  but  one  based  directly  on 
the  forms  current  in  Italy.  Thus  England  was  endowed,  as 
early  as  1620,  with  buildings  more  advanced  in  point  of  style 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   43  9 

than  those  of  any  other  country  than  Italy  itself.  The  most 
noted  of  Jones's  designs  was  for  the  palace  at  Whitehall  (1619), 
a  vast  composition  resembling  De  rOrme's  for  the  Tuileries. 
The  only  portion  executed,  the  Banqueting  Hall  (Fig.  243), 
had  a  characteristic  Palladian  facade  with  orders  in  two  stories, 
a  flat  balustraded  roof  and  an  entablature  broken  about  the 


FIG.    243 — LONDON.      THE    BANQUETING    HALL,    WHITEHALL 


supports.  Jones's  free-standing  Tuscan  portico  of  Saint 
Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  his  "Queen's  House"  at  Greenwich, 
as  well  as  his  gigantic  portico  for  the  old  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Paul,  represent  his  academic  side.  His  design  for  King 
Charles's  block  at  Greenwich  Hospital,  however,  closely  follows 
Maderna's  fagade  of  Saint  Peter's,  and  the  gate  at  York  Stairs, 
with  other  minor  works  and  interior  designs,  shows  pronounced 
baroque  characteristics. 

Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Until  after  the  Civil  Wars  Jones's 
work  remained  almost  isolated.  With  the  Restoration, 
however,  began  the  activity  of  Christopher  Wren  (1632-1723), 
a  distinguished  mathematician,  whose  chief  training  in  archi- 
tecture was  derived  from  books  and  from  a  visit  to  Paris  in 
1665,  the  very  year  of  Bernini's  triumphant  reception  there. 


440        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

It  was  natural  that  in  him,  as  in  Inigo  Jones,  academic  and 
baroque  influence  should  mingle,  the  baroque  element  being 
even  stronger  than  in  his  predecessor.  In  certain  designs,  to 
be  sure,  such  as  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
with  its  reminiscence  of  the  Library  of  Samt  Mark,  he  re- 
mained strictly  academic;  and  in  the  Monument  in  London, 
commemorating  the  great  fire  of  1666,  he  anticipated  later 
classical  movements  by  an  imitation  of  the  column  of  Trajan. 


FIG.  244 — LONDON.   SAINT  PAUL  S  CATHEDRAL.   PLAN 


In  his  towers  and  spires,  however,  in  his  fondness  for  the 
combination  of  brick  and  stone,  and  above  all  in  the  luxuriant 
detail  of  his  interiors,  he  shows  the  influence  of  contemporary 
Italy  and  the  Low  Countries. 

Saint  Paul's.  Wren's  most  important  commission  was  the 
rebuilding  of  Saint  Paul's,  1668-1710.  His  first  design  for  it 
was  a  great  octagonal  domed  church  with  an  encircling  aisle, 
like  Santa  Maria  della  Salute  in  Venice,  but  with  even  greater 
multiplicity  of  connections  and  variety  of  spatial  effect.  This 
proved  too  radical  for  the  clergy,  as  Bramante's  and  Michel- 
angelo's central  schemes  for  Saint  Peter's  had  proved,  and  a 
longitudinal  scheme  had  to  be  substituted  (Fig.  244).  The 
dome,  however,  remained  a  dominant  feature,  including  the 
whole  width  of  both  nave  and  aisles  as  in  the  cathedral  of 


By  courtesy  of  London  Stereoscopic  and  Photograph  Co. 
HG.  245— LONDON.      SAINT   PAUL'S   CATHEDRAL 


442        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Florence.  Its  external  form  in  the  earlier  projects  seems  to 
have  been  derived  from  San  Gallo's  model  for  Saint  Peter's, 
but  in  its  final  form  (Fig.  245)  it  was  influenced  rather  by 
Bramante's  designs.  Like  Bramante's  Tempietto  at  San  Pietro 
in  Montorio,  it  has  a  peristyle  of  free-standing  columns  with 
a  balustrade,  a  paneled  drum,  and  flat  ribs  on  the  dome 
proper.  The  vastly  larger  scale  of  Saint  Paul's  gives  the 
composition  a  new  majesty.  For  the  fagade  Wren  adopted  the 
two-storied  scheme  of  most  of  the  Italian  churches  of  the  time, 
with  twin  towers  similar  in  composition  to  those  of  Sant' 
Agnese  at  Rome  and  other  baroque  examples.  The  super- 
posed porticoes  of  coupled  columns  in  the  center,  however, 
had  more  of  the  academic  dignity  of  Palladio  and  Perrault. 
The  basilican  arrangement  of  the  interior,  with  the  flying 
buttresses  made  necessary  by  the  clerestory,  Wren  felt  it 
necessary  to  mask  by  carrying  his  second  story  order  around 
the  exterior.  The  interior  dome  also  fell  far  below  the 
exterior  one,  which  was  formed  of  timber  framework  over  a 
cone  of  brick  supporting  the  lantern.  Thus  frankness  of 
construction  was  sacrificed  to  gain  the  complete  liberty  of 
design  which  the  post-Renaissance  artist  demanded  for  both 
interior  and  exterior.  ^ 

Vanbrugh.  The  dual  tendencies  of  the  period  appear  in 
heightened  contrast  in  the  work  of  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  who 
took  up  architecture  at  thirty-five,  after  a  brilliant  success  as 
a  writer  of  comedies.  In  his  vast  designs  for  Castle  Howard, 
Blenheim  Palace  (Fig.  246),  and  other  houses  of  the  aristoc- 
racy, he  carried  to  the  limit  the  scale  of  orders  and  rooms,  the 
picturesque  composition  of  masses,  and  the  support  of  the 
main  mass  by  subordinate  colonnades  and  dependencies. 
Baroque  features  abound  in  the  treatment  of  the  cupolas  and 
the  skyline  generally,  whereas  the  porticoes  and  colonnades 
are  often  of  strictly  classical  ordonnance.  A  classical  portico 
of  this  sort,  without  any  combinations  with  baroque  elements, 
appears  in  the  Clarendon  Press  building  at  Oxford,  designed 
by  Vanbrugh  and  his  pupil  Nicholas  Hawksmoor  about  1 7 10. 

Academic  supremacy.  ' '  The  Palladian  style. ' '  The  influence 
of  the  universities,  indeed,  was  squarely  on  the  side  of  the 
classical  and  academic,  and  the  same  was  true  of  the  noble 
amateurs  for  whose  schooling  the  "grand  tour"  to  Italy  had 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   443 

become  indispensable.  The  most  influential  of  these  was 
Lord  Burlington  (1695-1753)  who  purchased  Palladio's  draw- 
ings in  Vicenza,  issued  an  edition  of  his  writings  in  1715-16, 
and  of  his  restorations  of  ancient  buildings  in  1730.  He  also 
assisted  the  architects  of  Palladian  tendencies — Colin  Camp- 
bell, William  Kent,  and  others — by  commissions  and  by  help- 


no.   246 — BLENHEIM   PALACE  FROM   THE   FORE-COURT 


ing  in  the  publication  of  their  designs.  Burlington  House  in 
London  by  Campbell,  1716-17,  shows  direct  following  of 
Palladio's  designs.  The  favorite  of  these  was  his  Villa 
Rotonda,  which  was  reproduced  both  by  Campbell  and  by 
Burlington  himself.  For  the  assembly  rooms  at  York, 
Burlington  adopted  an  imitation  of  Palladio's  "Egyptian 
Hall,"  surrounded  by  colonnades  in  two  stories.  The  free- 
standing portico  as  used  by  Palladio  became  the  rule  for  the 
great  houses  of  the  nobility  (Fig.  247)  and  for  churches  as 
well.  Henceforth  throughout  the  century  in  England  academic 
purity  of  detail  was  carried  to  the  point  of  banishing  all 
decorative  sculpture  from  the  facades,  which  depended  for 


444        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

their  effect  solely  on  abstract  composition  and  proportion. 
Thus  England  anticipated  by  a  generation  or  more  the  victory 
of  academism  and  the  advent  of  classicism  in  other  countries, 
and  was  in  a  position  to  exercise  on  them  a  powerful  return 
influence. 

Domestic  architecture.  The  great  houses.  The  post-Renais- 
sance period  after  the  Restoration  was  the  heyday  of  the 
English  landed  aristocracy,  and  it  was  natural  that  the 
characteristic  type  of  the  period  should  have  been  the  great 
country  house.  The  royal  palaces  scarcely  surpassed  many 
other  seats  in  size  and  splendor  and  may  well  be  considered 
with  them.  In  the  development  considerations  of  form  took 
first  place,  and  the  interior  was  arranged  as  well  as  possible 
without  disturbing  the  facades.  The  first  building  of  the  new 
order  was  the  Queen's  House  at  Greenwich,  designed  in  1617. 
It  was  a  solid  rectangular  block,  with  a  central  colonnaded 
loggia  over  a  high  basement,  and  with  a  flat  roof  and  balus- 
trade— a  revolutionary  contrast  to  the  typical  Jacobean  house, 
its  tall  wings,  bays,  and  gables.  In  his  designs  for  Whitehall, 
Jones  employed  superposed  orders;  in  those  for  the  later 
buildings  at  Greenwich,  a  colossal  order  and  attic.  In  Somer- 
set House,  as  executed,  he  adopted  pilasters  running  through 
two  stories,  over  an  arcaded  basement.  The  plans  made 
certain  advances  in  the  direction  of  convenience  and  privacy— 
the  files  of  rooms  were  doubled  in  many  of  the  blocks,  and 
corridors  were  often  added.  Palladio's  scheme  of  dependencies 
on  either  side  of  the  fore-court,  connected  with  the  house  by 
colonnades,  was  also  adopted.  Of  the  Italian  formulae  for 
facades  introduced  by  Jones,  the  favorite  was  the  one  which 
had  the  added  prestige  of  its  adoption  in  the  Louvre — the  tall 
order  over  a  basement  story.  This  was  used  by  Wren  at 
Hampton  Court  (1689-1700),  and  was  reverted  to  (after 
Vanbrugh's  preference  for  the  colossal  order)  by  the  later 
Palladians.  In  the  larger  houses  of  Vanbrugh,  there  was  a 
modification  of  the  block-like  mass  of  the  main  house  by  wings 
providing  long  suites  of  state  apartments  toward  the  gardens, 
on  the  model  of  those  at  Versailles.  At  Blenheim,  indeed, 
these  wings  were  also  turned  forward  along  the  sides  of  the 
house;  and  the  kitchens  and  stables  were  pushed  still  farther 
forward,  and  grouped  about  independent  courts  on  either 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   445 

side  of  a  second  fore-court  like  the  Cour  Royale  at  Versailles. 
Unlike  Versailles,  however,  Vanbrugh's  houses  had  an  emphasis 
on  the  central  and  terminal  masses  which  makes  them  much 
more  lively  in  silhouette  (Fig.  246).  With  the  return  to 
Palladianism  came  the  adoption  of  the  great  free-standing 
pedimented  portico,  often  of  six  Corinthian  columns,  as  at 


FIG.    247 — PRIOR   PARK   NEAR   BATH 


Prior  Park  near  Bath,  built  in  1734  (Fig.  247).  In  other 
Palladian  houses  the  arrangement  was  still  more  schematic — 
even  symmetrical  on  both  axes — sometimes  with  four  outlying 
blocks,  as  at  Holkham.  The  service  quarters  were  now 
provided  for  in  the  basement  story,  less  frankly  confessed  but 
more  convenient  in  their  relation  to  the  living-rooms. 

Smaller  houses.  Besides  the  multitude  of  great  houses  with 
their  weight  of  academic  apparatus,  there  was  an  even  greater 
number  of  unpretentious  houses  in  many  of  which  no  orders 
at  all  were  used.  Even  those  attributed  to  Jones  and  Wren  are 


446 


A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


merely  straightforward  compositions  of  wall  and  openings — 
of  stone,  of  brick,  or  of  brick  and  stone — sometimes  with 
classical  architraves,  but  sometimes  without  even  these. 
Leaded  and  mullioned  windows  were  abandoned  for  painted 
wooden  sashes,  and  classical  detail  was  restricted  to  the 
pilastered  doorway  and  main  cornice.  In  the  simpler  examples 
there  might  even  be  nothing  specifically  classical  except  the 
general  regularity  and  symmetry,  as,  for  instance,  in  Clifford 


FIG.    248 — CLIFFORD   CHAMBERS 


Chambers  (Fig.  248),  where  the  "vernacular"  style  is  seen  in 
a  typically  cultivated  and  luxuriant  natural  setting. 

Gardens.  The  earlier  gardens  of  the  period  in  England  were 
under  foreign  influence — successively  Italian,  with  terraces, 
statues,  and  fountains;  Dutch,  with  yews  clipped  in  fantastic 
shapes;  and  French,  with  the  long  allees  and  canals  of  Le 
Notre.  In  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  under 
the  leadership  of  writers  like  Shaftesbury,  Addison,  and  Pope, 
began  the  modern  appreciation  of  natural  landscape,  and  in 
its  wake  came  the  creation  of  the  informal  landscape  garden — 
a  new  type,  specifically  English.  The  great  formal  gardens 
were  gradually  remodeled  until  the  houses  stood  immediately 


POST-RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE    447 

in  naturalesque  grounds,  where  every  stratagem  was  employed 
to  create  pleasing  vistas  and  a  constant  variety  of  character. 
A  multitude  of  minor  decorative  structures,  among  which 
playful  reproductions  of  classical  temples  began  to  appear, 
served  still  further  to  diversify  and  enliven  the  grounds. 

Parish  churches.  Church  building  was  uncommon  in  Eng- 
land during  the  post-Renaissance  period,  except  in  London. 
There  the  vast  growth  of  the  city  and  the  havoc  wrought  by 
the  great  fire  of  1666  made  many  new  structures  necessary. 
They  presented  a  problem,  which  even  the  established  church 
in  England  shared  with  the  Protestants  of  France  and  Ger- 
many: to  build  in  Renaissance  forms  a  church  primarily 
adapted  for  preaching.  In  the  first  example,  the  church  of 
Saint  Paul's,  Covent  Garden  (1631),  Jones  came  nearer  the 
Palladian  ideal  of  a  reproduction  of  the  classic  temple  than 
had  Palladio  himself.  It  proved  an  isolated  exotic.  Wren 
solved  the  problem  by  the  adoption  of  broad  and  compact 
plans,  little  encumbered  by  columns,  yet  of  the  greatest 
variety  and  ingenuity  of  forms.  A  basilican  arrangement 
with  a  barrel-vaulted  nave,  as  in  Saint  Bride's,  is  not  un- 
common in  them,  and  a  dome  supported  on  columns  and 
diagonal  arches  is  occasionally  found,  as  at  Saint  Stephen's, 
Walbrook.  Galleries  were  frequently  added  to  increase  the 
seating  capacity.  On  the  exterior  Wren  usually  retained  the 
bell  tower  and  subordinated  the  architectural  treatment  of  the 
rest  of  the  church  to  the  rich  development  of  its  upper  portion. 
He  sought  to  retain  the  expressive  effect  of  the  Gothic  spire  by 
facile  combinations  of  classical  elements  in  decreasing  stages. 
The  first  and  most  influential  of  these  steeples  was  that  of 
Saint  Mary-le-Bow  (Fig.  249),  which  has  the  transition  from 
the  square  belfry  stage  masked  by  angle  finials,  and  the  further 
reduction  in  diameter  accomplished  by  a  range  of  consoles. 
The  later  development  of  the  type  took  place  through  the 
elimination  of  Gothic  or  baroque  elements  in  the  steeple  and 
through  the  addition  of  a  portico  and  other  classical  members 
to  the  body  of  the  edifice.  All  these  changes  best  appear  in 
the  churches  of  James  Gibbs,  whose  church  of  Saint  Mary-le- 
Strand  has  a  treatment  of  the  exterior  by  superposed  orders 
based  on  that  of  Saint  Paul's.  His  design  for  Saint  Martin- 
in-the-Fields'  has  a  hexastyle  Corinthian  portico  and  a  steeple 


448        A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

in  which  the  transition  from  square  to  octagonal  is  even  more 
subtly  accomplished  than  in  those  of  Wren.  It  became  the 
prototype  of  many  others. 

Town  planning.  The  unified  planning  of  many  buildings, 
so  characteristic  of  the  period,  began  in  England  with  Inigo 
Jones's  design  for  Covent  Garden — a  square  surrounded  by 
open  arcades,  which  are  treated  as  the  basement  for  pilasters 
running  through  two  stories  above.  For  the  rebuilding  of 
London  after  the  great  fire  of  1666,  Wren  prepared  a  plan 
based  on  the  radiating  principle  already  adopted  in  France, 
but  the  multitude  of  private  interests  affected  prevented  its 
execution.  Unified  streets  and  squares,  however,  continued 
to  be  built  by  the  great  landed  proprietors,  whose  system  of 
ground  rent  favored  this  method.  The  ultimate  scope  of 
such  enterprises  is  best  seen  outside  of  London,  at  Bath,  where 
the  architect  John  Wood  created  not  only  squares,  but  also 
"circuses"  and  "crescents"  with  coherent  academic  facades 
treated  with  pilasters  or  superposed  columns. 

Details.  The  period  of  compromise  between  academic  and 
baroque  tendencies  in  England  was  generally  marked  by  strict 
following  of  the  forms  and  proportions  of  the  orders  themselves, 
but  by  considerable  license  in  the  other  details,  especially  in 
interiors.  Thus,  although  twisted  columns,  for  example, 
appear  in  but  few  instances  (as  in  the  porch  of  Saint  Mary's 
Church,  Oxford,  attributed  to  Inigo  Jones),  broken  and  scroll 
pediments,  architraves  with  rusticated  key-blocks,  and  free 
combinations  of  consoles  often  occur.  In  the  interiors  by 
Wjcen,  such  features  are  combined  with  the  most  lavish  and 
exuberant  carving,  the  work  of  Grinling  Gibbons,  a  spiritual 
descendant  of  Bernini  and  the  Italian  decorators.  In  all  this 
work  appears  the  characteristic  post-Renaissance  feeling  for 
interdependence,  transition,  and  fusion  of  the  parts  in  an 
indissoluble  whole.  With  the  Palladian  movement  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  however,  came  a  tendency  to  abandon 
this  mode  of  composition,  even  to  expurgate  the  works  of 
Palladio  himself,  who  had  followed  it  so  far  as  academic  forms 
permitted.  Thus  the  use  of  pavilions,  the  breaking  of  cornices 
at  engaged  columns,  the  use  of  ears  and  consoles,  and  of  string- 
courses interrupted  by  pilasters  was  gradually  abandoned. 
Unbroken  cornices  and  self-sufficient  doors  and  windows 


By  courtesy  of  London  Stereoscopic  and  Photograph  Co. 
FIG.    249 — LONDON.      SAINT   MARY-LE-BOW 


450        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


tended  to  rule  in  buildings  themselves  standing  proudly  self- 
sufficient,  with  little  transition  to  their  environment. 
Academism  thus  here  first  gave  place  to  the  new  classicism 
which  was  destined  to  succeed  it. 

Germany.     Baroque   architecture:    c.    1580-1730.     In   Ger- 
many, after  the  introduction  of  baroque  forms  from  Italy, 

about  1580, the 
baroque  spirit  main- 
tained a  complete 
ascendancy.  At 
first  it  was  the  in- 
fluence of  Alessi  and 
of  north  Italy  which 
dominated,  and 
which,  united  with 
survivals  of  medi- 
evalism, produced 
such  characteristi- 
cally German  build- 
ings as  the  Fried- 
richsbau  at  Heidel- 
berg (1601-07),  and 
the  Rathaus  at 
Augsburg  (1614- 
20).  The  Thirty 
Years'  War  (1618- 
48)  with  its  unpar- 
alleled devastation, 
however,  brought 
all  building  in  Ger- 
many to  a  stand- 
still, and  destroyed 
architectural  tradi- 
tion itself.  Meanwhile,  in  the  south,  the  Catholic  princes 
had  summoned  to  their  aid  the  Jesuits  of  Italy,  bring- 
ing with  them  Italian  architects  and  their  maturer  baroque. 
Thus  in  1606  Vincenzo  Scamozzi,  a  disciple  of  Palladio, 
prepared  a  plan  for  the  cathedral  of  Salzburg,  which  was 
executed  in  1614-34,  with  forms  reminiscent  of  II  Gesu  in 
Rome.  Italian  architects  built  at  Prague  the  Waldstein 


FIG.    250 — DRESDEN.      CENTRAL   PAVILION   OF 
THE   ZWINGER 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   451 

Palace  (1623-29)  with  its  great  garden  loggia  of  arches  on 
coupled  columns;  and  later,  in  Munich,  the  Theatine  Church 
(1663-75)  with  its  two-story  facade,  its  tall  dome  and  Western 
towers  with  multiplied  consoles.  An  independent  German 
version  of  the  baroque  did  not  flourish  until  after  1700,  when 
a  group  of  masters  arose 
who  showed  a  facility  in 
this  medium  of  expression 
scarcely  equaled  even  in 
Italy.  Andreas  Schlxiter 
imbued  the  royal  palace  in 
Berlin  with  the  exuberant 
decorative  spirit  of  his 
sculptures,  Matthaus  Pop- 
pelmann  attained  in  the 
Z winger  at  Dresden  (1711- 
22)  the  ultimate  fusion  of 
all  the  elements  through  the 
incompleteness  and  mutual 
dependence  of  every  one 
(Fig.  250).  Georg  Bahr 
brought  to  a  brilliant  culmi- 
nation the  development  of 
the  Protestant  auditorium- 
church  by  his  Frauenkirche 
at  Dresden  (Fig.  251),  with 
its  rotunda  and  storied  in- 
terior galleries,  its  unique 
and  successful  transition 
from  mass  to  dome.  In 
Vienna,  Johann  Fischer  von 
Erlach,  the  pioneer  historian 

of  architecture,  showed  a  more  eclectic  spirit — as  in  the  employ- 
ment of  a  classical  portico,  and  of  imitations  of  the  column  of 
Trajan,  as  elements  in  his  church  of  San  Carlo  Borromeo — 
but  in  general  baroque  conceptions  dominate  wholly. 

Rococo.  French  influence:  c.  1730-70.  From  about  1730, 
this  native  growth  was  submerged,  thanks  to  the  overpower- 
ing prestige  of  France,  by  an  influx  of  French  architects  and 
French  influence.  These  men  were  adepts  in  the  free  rococo 


FIG.    251 — DRESDEN.      FRAUENKIRCHE 


452        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

decorations  of  Louis  XV.  and,  unlike  their  fellow  extremists 
who  remained  in  France,  were  not  restrained  by  academic 
tradition  from  carrying  over  their  curvilinear  style  to  exteriors. 
On  the  contrary  the  prevailing  native  baroque  encouraged 
them  to  indulge  their  tendencies  in  graceful  chateaux  like  the 
Amalienburg  by  Frangois  de  Cuvillies,  which  have  no  counter- 
part outside  of  Germany. 

Rise  of  academism.  English  influence.  Frederick  the 
Great  (1740-86)  turned  not  only  to  France  but  to  England, 
which  in  the  later  eighteenth  century  began  to  set  the  mode 
even  for  France  itself.  The  Royal  Opera  House  in  Berlin 
(1743)  has  a  pedimented  Corinthian  portico  of  six  columns, 
severe  classical  niches,  and  almost  complete  absence  of 
sculpture.  The  final  victory  of  this  academic  tendency, 
presaging  that  of  classicism  itself,  appears  in  the  decorative 
towers  of  the  Gendarmenmarkt  in  Berlin  (1780^.)  by  Karl  von 
Gontard,  in  which  are  mingled  reminiscences  of  the  tall  domes 
of  Wren  and  Soufflot. 

PERIODS  OF   POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE 

ITALY 

I.       Establishment  of  academic  and  baroque  tendencies,  c.  1540-80. 
Michelangelo  Buonarroti,  1475-1564. 

Studies  for  the  fagade  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Florence,  1514^". 

New  Sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo  (Medici  Chapel),   1521-34. 

Laurentian  Library  at  Florence,  1524-71. 

Saint  Peter's  at  Rome,  1546-64. 

Palaces  and  square  of  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  1 546  f. 

Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli  at  Rome,  1559. 

Porta  Pia  at  Rome,  1559. 
Andrea  Palladio,   1518-80. 

Basilica  at  Vicenza,  1549. 

Palazzo  Valmarana  at  Vicenza,  begun  1556. 

San  Giorgio  Maggiore  at  Venice,  1565. 

II  Redentore  at  Venice,  1577. 

Villa  Almerigo  (Villa  Rotonda)  near  Vicenza,  1570-89. 

Teatro  Olimpico  at  Vicenza,  1580-84. 
Giacomo  Barozzi  da  Vignola,  1507-73. 

Palace  at  Caprarola,  1547. 

Villa  di  Papa  Giulio  at  Rome,  1550. 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   453 

Sant'  Andrea  at  Rome,  1550. 

Villa  Lante  near  Viterbo,  begun  1566. 

II  Gesu  at  Rome,  1568. 
Giorgio  Vasari,  1511-74. 

Court  of  the  Uffizi  in  Florence,  1560-80. 
Galeazzo  Alessi  ,1512-72. 

Palazzo  Sauli  at  Genoa,  c.  1550. 

Santa  Maria  di  Carignano  at  Genoa,  begun  c.  1552. 

Palazzo  Marino  at  Milan,  1568. 
Bartolomeo  Ammanati,  1511-92. 

Ponte  Santa  Trinita  at  Florence,  1567-70. 

II.  Baroque  supremacy,  c.  1580-1730. 

Giacomo  della  Porta,  1541-1604. 

Design  for  facade  of  II  Gesu  at  Rome,  c.  1573. 
Domenico  Fontana,  1543-1607. 

Acqua  Paolina,  1585-90. 
Carlo  Maderna,  1556-1639. 

Facade  of  Saint  Peter's  at  Rome,  1606-26. 
Giovanni  Lorenzo  Bernini,  1598-1680. 

Baldachino  of  Saint  Peter's  at  Rome,  1624-33. 

Colonnades  of  Saint  Peter's,  1656-63. 

Scala  Regia  in  the  Vatican,  1663-66. 

Palazzo  Ludovisi  (Montecitorio),  1642-1700. 
Francesco  Borromini,  1599-1667.  • 

Remodeling  of  Palazzo  Spada  at  Rome,  1632. 

San  Carlo  alle  Quattro  Fontane,  1640. 

Sant'  Agnese  at  Rome,  1645-50. 
Guarino  Guarini,  1624-83. 

Palazzo  Carignano  at  Turin,  1680. 
Baldassare  Longhena,  1604-82. 

Santa  Maria  della  Salute,  1631-82. 

III.  Compromise,  c.  1730-80. 

Filippo  Juvara,  1685-1735. 

The  Supcrga  near  Turin,  1706-20. 

Palazzo  Madama  at  Turin,  1718. 
Alessandro  Galilei  (1691-1737). 

Facade  the  Church  of  the  Lateran,  1734. 
Luigi  Vanvitelli,  1700-73. 

Palace  at  Caserta,  1752  jf. 

SPAIN 

I.      Academic  architecture,  c.  1570-1610. 
Juan  de  Herrera,  c.  1530-97. 


454        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

The  Escurial,  1563-81. 
Cathedral  in  Valladolid,  1585  Jf. 
Exchange  in  Seville,  1584-98. 

II.  Baroque  supremacy,  c.  1610-1750. 

Juan  Gomez  de  Mora,  d.  1647. 

Jesuit  college  and  church  in  Salamanca,  1614  (-1750). 
Jose  Churriguera,  1650-1723. 

Catafalque  for  Queen  Maria  Luisa,  1689. 

Town  Hall  of  Salamanca. 
Pedro  Ribera. 

Facade  of  the  Hospicio  Provincial  in  Madrid,  1772  (-1799). 
Ventura  Rodriquez,  1717-85. 

San  Marcos  in  Madrid,  1749-53. 

San  Francisco  el  Grande  in  Madrid,  1761. 

III.  Reaction,  c.  1730. 

Filippo  Juvara  and  Giovanni  Battista  Sacchetti,  d.  1766. 

Royal  Palace  at  La  Granja,  1721-23. 

Royal  Palace  at  Madrid,  1734^". 
Pedro  Caro,  d.  1732. 

Palace  at  Aranjuez,  1727  (-78). 

FRANCE 

I.  .  Baroque  supremacy,  c.  1590-1635. 

Henry  IV.,  1589-1601. 

Etienne  du  Perac,  c.  1540-1601. 

Palace  and  Gardens  at  Saint  Germain,  1594. 
Claude  Chastillon,  1547-1616. 

Place  Royale  at  Paris,  1604. 
Louis  XIII.,  1610-43. 

Salomon  de  Brosse,  b.  between  1552  and  1562,  d.  1626. 

Luxembourg  Palace,  1616-20. 

Fagade  for  Saint  Gervais  in  Paris,  1616-21. 
Jacques  Lemercier,  1585-1654. 

Enlargement  of  the  Court  of  the  Louvre,  1624-30. 

Chateau  de  Richelieu,  1627-37. 

Church  of  the  Sor bonne,  1635-53. 

II.  Compromise,  c.  1635-1745. 

Stricter  phase,  c.  1635-1715. 

Francois  Mansart,  1598-1666. 

Wing  of  Gaston  d'Orleans  at  Blois,  1635-40. 
Chateau  of  Maisons  near  Paris,  1642-51. 
Church  of  the  Val-de-Grace  in  Paris,  begun  1645. 
Louis  XIV.,  1643-1715. 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   455 

Louis  le  Vau,  1612-70. 

Chateau  of  Vaux-le-Vicomte,  c.  1656-60. 

College  des  Quatre  Nations  at  Paris,  1660-68. 

Continuation  of  the  Louvre,  1664-70. 

Remodeling  of  Versailles  (Cour  de  Marbre),  1665-70. 
Claude  Perrault,  1613-88. 

Colonnade  of  the  Louvre,  1665. 
Jules  Hardouin  Mansart,  1646-1708. 

Second   remodeling   of   Versailles,    1678-88;     chapel, 
1699-1710. 

Dome  of  the  Invalides  at  Paris,  1692-1704. 
Francois  Blondel,  1618-86. 

Porte  Saint  Denis  at  Paris,  1672. 
Freer  phase,  rococo,  c.  1715-45. 
Louis  XV.,  1715-74. 
J.  Aubert,  d.  1741. 

Stables  at  Chantilly,  1710-35. 

Hotel  Biron  at  Paris,  1728. 
Girardini,  dates  uncertain. 

Palais  Bourbon  at  Paris,  1722. 
Germain  Boffrand,  1667-1754. 

Hotel  d'Amelot  at  Paris. 
Emmanuel  Here  de  Corny,  1705-63. 

New  quarter  at  Nancy,  1750-57. 
III.  Academic  victory,  1745-80. 
Louis  XVI.,  1774-92. 
Jean  Nicholas  Servadony,  b.  1695  or  1696,  d.  1766. 

Facade  of  Saint  Sulpice  in  Paris,  1732-45. 
Jacques  Germain  Soufflot,  1709-80. 

Facade  of  the  Hotel  Dieu  at  Lyons,  1737. 

Saint  Genevicve  (the  Pantheon)  at  Paris,  1757-90  (see 

Chapter  XII). 
Jacques  Anges  Gabriel,  1698-82. 

Ecole  Militaire  in  Paris,  1652^. 

Palace  at  Compiegne,  1652-72. 

Theater,  etc.,  at  Versailles,  1753-70. 

Petit  Trianon,  1762-68. 

Palaces  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  Paris,  1762-70. 
Jacques  Denis  Antoine,  1733-1801. 

The  Mint  in  Paris,  1771-75. 

ENGLAND 

I.      Baroque  supremacy,  c.  1600-20. 

(See  English  Renaissance  architecture,  under  Tames  I.) 
16 


456        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

II.  Compromise,  c.  1620-1720. 

Inigo  Jones,  1573-1652. 

Queen's  House  in  Greenwich,  1617-35. 

Whitehall  Palace  in  London,  1619-22. 

Square  and  church  of  Saint  Paul,  Covent  Garden,  1631. 

Portico  of  old  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  in  London,  1633  jf. 

King  Charles's  Block  at  Greenwich,  1637. 

Somerset  House  in  London,  1636-38. 

Wilton  House,  1647. 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  1632-1723. 

Sheldonian  Theater  at  Oxford,  1663-68. 

Plan  for  the  rebuilding  of  London,  1666. 

Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  in  London,  1668-1710. 

The  Monument  in  London,  1671. 

Temple  Bar  in  London,  1671. 

City  churches  in  London,  1670-1711. 
Saint  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  1672-79. 
Saint  Mary-le-Bow,  1680. 
Saint  Bride's,  1680-1702. 

Buildings  at  Greenwich,  1676-1716. 

Library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1678. 

Hampton  Court,  1689-1703. 
William  Talman,  fl.  1670-1700. 

Chatsworth,  1681. 
Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  1666-1726. 

Castle  Howard,  1702-14. 

Blenheim  Palace,  1705-24. 
Nicholas  Hawksmoor,  1661-1736. 

Clarendon  Press  at  Oxford  (with  Vanbrugh),  c.  1710. 

III.  Academic  supremacy,  c.  1720-70. 

Richard  Boyle,  Earl  of  Burlington,  1695-1753. 

General  Wade's  house  in  Bath,  1723. 

Villa  at  Chiswick,  1729. 

Assembly  rooms  at  York,  1730-36. 
Colin  Campbell,  c.  1729. 

Burlington  House  in  London,  1717. 

Wanstead,  1720. 

Mereworth  Castle,  1723. 
James  Gibbs,  1628-1754. 

Saint  Martin-in-the-Fields'  in  London,  1721-26. 

Radcliffe  Library  at  Oxford,  1737-47. 
William  Kent,  1684-1748. 

Holkham,  1734. 

Horse  Guards  in  London,  begun  1742. 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   457 

John  Wood,  c.  1704-54. 

Prior  Park  near  Bath,  1734. 

The  Circus  at  Bath,  1754$. 
George  Dance  the  elder,  1698-1768. 

Mansion  House  in  London,  1739-53. 
James  Paine,  1725-89. 

Worksop  Manor  House,  1763. 
Sir  William  Chambers,  1726-96. 

Rebuilding  of  Somerset  House  in  London,  1776-90. 

GERMANY 

I.  Baroque  architecture,  c.  1580-1730. 

Michaelskirche  in  Munich,  1583-97. 

Friedrichsbau  at  Heidelberg,  1601-07. 
Elias  Holl,  1573-1646. 

Rathaus  in  Augsburg,  1614-20. 
Vincenzo  Scamozzi. 

Design   for   the   Cathedral   of   Salzburg,    1606,   executed 

1614-34. 
Antonio  and  Pietro  Spezza. 

Loggia  of  the  Waldstein  Palace  at  Prague,  1629. 
Enrico  Zuccali,  1643-1724. 

Theatine  Church  in  Munich,  1663-75. 
Andreas  Schliiter,  1622-1714. 

Royal  Palace  in  Berlin,  1699  ff. 
Johann  Bernard  Fischer  von  Erlach,  1650-1723., 

Palace  of  Prince  Eugene  at  Vienna,  1703. 

Church  of  San  Carlo  Borromeo  in  Vienna,  1716-37. 
Matthaus  Daniel  Poppelmann,  1662-1736. 

Zwinger  in  Dresden,  1711-22. 
Georg  Bahr,  1666-1738. 

Frauenkirche  in  Dresden,  1726-40. 
Balthasar  Neumann,  1687-1753. 

Schloss  Bruchsal,  1722-43  (partly  rococo). 

II.  Rococo,  c.  1730-70. 

Francois  de  Cuvillies  the  elder,  1698-1768. 

Amalienburg  near  Munich,  1734-39. 
Pierre  de  la  Gue"piere. 

Schloss  Monrepos  near  Ludwigsburg,  1760-67. 

Schloss  Solitude  near  Stuttgart,  1763-67. 
Georg  von  Knobelsdorff,  1699-1753. 

Neues  Schloss  at  Chariot tenburg,  1740-42. 

Sanssouci,  begun  1745. 


458        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

III.  Rise  of  academism,  c.  1740-80. 

Georg  von  Knobelsdorff,  1699-1753. 

Royal  Opera  House  at  Berlin,  1743. 
Karl  von  Gontard,  1738-1802. 

Communs  at  Potsdam,  1765-69. 

Towers  in  the  Gendarmenmarkt  in  Berlin,  1780. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

General  works  covering  the  period  are  G.  Ebe's  Die  Spat-Renais- 
sance, 2  vols.,  1886;  C.  Gurlitt's  Geschichte  des  Barockstiles,  des  Rococo 
una  des  Klassizismus  (Geschichte  der  neueren  Baukunst},  3  vols., 
1887-89,  of  which  the  individual  volumes  are  listed  below,  and 
P.  FrankPs  Die  Entwicklungsphasen  der  neueren  Baukunst,  1914. 
Further  illustrations  are  provided  by  R.  Dohme's  Barock-  und  Rococo- 
Architektur,  3  vols.,  1892.  Books  dealing  with  but  One  of  the  com- 
plementary tendencies  of  the  times  are  P.  Klopfer's  Von  Palladia  bis 
Schinkel:  cine  Charakteristik  der  Baukunst  des  Klassizismus  (Geschichte 
der  neueren  Baukunst},  1911,  and  M.  S.  Briggs's  Baroque  Architecture, 
1914.  Discussions  of  the  relation  of  the  tendencies  are  H.  Wolfflin's 
Renaissance  und  Barock,  1888,  2d  ed.,  1907;  A.  Schmarzow's 
Barock  und  Rokoko,  1897,  and  K.  Escher's  Barock  und  Klassizismus, 
1910. 

Italy.  Gurlitt's  volume,  Geschichte  des  Barockstiles  in  Italien, 
1887,  is  still  the  principal  historical  account,  which  may  be  supple- 
mented by  the  Italian  sections  of  the  other  general  works,  and  by  the 
photographs  reproduced  in  C.  Ricci's  Baroque  Architecture  and  Sculpt- 
ure in  Italy,  1912.  Specially  concerned  with  Rome  are  A.  Riegl's 
Die  Entstehung  der  Barockkunst  in  Rom,  1908,  and  Escher's  Barock 
und  Klassizismus.  For  the  villas  and  gardens  see  M.  L.  Gothein's 
Geschichte  der  Gartenkunst,  2  vols.,  1914,  Chapter  VII;  H.  I.  Triggs's 
The  Art  of  Garden  Design  in  Italy,  1906,  and  G.  Lowell's  Smaller 
Italian  Villas  and  Farmhouses,  1916. 

France.  The  work  of  Ward  on  Renaissance  architecture  and  (to 
a  less  degree)  the  works  of  Geymuller  and  Blomfield  cover  the  post- 
Renaissance  period  as  well.  Two  works  by  H.  Lemonnier,  L'art 
franqais  au  temps  de  Richelieu  et  de  Mazarin,  1893,  and  L'art  franq ais 
au  temps  de  Louis  XIV.,  1911,  include  architecture  with  the  other  arts. 
Topographical  works  with  large  photographic  reproductions  include 
those  of  L.  Deshairs  on  Bordeaux,  Dijon,  and  Aix,  and  those  of  R.  le 
Nail  and  C.  Gurlitt  on  Lyons.  F.  Contet's  Les  vieux  hotels  de  Paris, 
10  vols.,  1908-14,  partially  covers  Paris  in  a  similar  way,  while  each 
of  the  great  royal  palaces  has  several  works  devoted  especially  to  it. 


POST-RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE   459 

Three  works  by  P.  Planat:  Le  style  Louis  XIV.,  Le  style  Louis  V., 
and  Le  style  Louis  XVI.,  1907,  give  similar  plates  for  the  periods 
indicated  by  their  titles.  Garden  architecture  is  treated  in  M. 
Fouquier's  De  I'art  des  jardins  du  XVe  au  XXe  siecle,  1911,  and  in 
H.  Stein's  Les  jardins  de  France.  The  general  biographical  works 
covering  French  architects  are  supplemented  by  E.  F.  Dilke's  French 
Architects  and  Sculptors  of  the  XVIII.  Century,  1900. 

England.  The  principal  work  is  R.  Blomfield's  History  of  Renais- 
sance Architecture  in  England,  1500-1800,  2  vols.,  1897,  of  which  the 
major  part  is  devoted  to  the  period  after  1615.  It  includes  a  full 
bibliography  of  contemporary  and  modern  works.  A  series  of  large 
photographs  and  measured  drawings  is  furnished  by  J.  Belcher 
and  M.  E.  Macartney's  Later  Renaissance  Architecture  in  England, 
2  vols.,  1897-1901.  Domestic  architecture  is  specially  treated  in 
M.  E.  Macartney's  English  Houses  and  Gardens  in  the  ijth  and  i8th 
Centuries,  1908;  H.  Field  and  M.  Bunney's  English  Domestic  Archi- 
tecture of  the  XVII.  and  XVIII.  Centuries,  1905  (smaller  buildings); 
T.  V.  Sadlier  and  P.  L.  Dickinson's  Georgian  Mansions  in  Ireland, 
1915;  M.  A.  Green's  The  Eighteenth  Century  Architecture  of  Bath, 
1904;  and  A.  E.  Richardson  and  C.  L.  Gill's  London  Houses  from 
1660-1820.  For  individual  biography  see  E.  B.  Chancellor's  The 
Lives  of  the  British  Architects,  1909. 

Spain.  O.  Schubert's  Geschichte  des  Barock  in  Spanien  {Geschichte 
der  neueren  Baukunst),  1908,  is  the  authoritative  discussion.  Further 
illustrations  are  furnished  by  the  works  of  Uhde,  Junghandel,  and 
others  listed  under  the  Renaissance  in  Spain. 

Germany.  Ample  illustration  is  furnished  by  Dohme's  work, 
mentioned  above:  by  Lambert  and  Stahl's  Motive  der  dcutschen  Archi- 
tektur, vol.  2,  1892;  P.  Schmoll  and  G.  Staehelin's  Barockbauten  in 
Deutschland,  1904;  O.  Aufleger's  Suddeutsche  Architektur  .  .  .  im 
XVIII.  Jahrhundert,  2  vols.,  1891-95;  and,  in  more  convenient 
compass,  in  H.  Popp's  Architektur  der  Barock  und  Rokokozeit  in 
Deutschland  und  der  Schweiz,  1914.  P.  Schumann's  Barock  und 
Rokoko,  1885,  is  specially  devoted  to  Dresden.  J.  Braun's  Die 
Kirchenbauten  der  deutschen  Jesuiten,  2  vols.,  1908-10,  covers  a 
notable  series  of  churches.  C.  Gurlitt's  Historische  Stadtcbilder, 
ii  vols.,  1901-09,  is  largely  devoted  to  German  cities  important  in 
this  period. 


CHAPTER  XII 
MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 

The  mid-eighteenth  century  witnessed  the  beginnings  of  a 
series  of  changes,  political  and  cultural,  scarcely  less  important 
than  those  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Although  many  of  these 
movements  were  extensions  or  logical  consequences  of  those 
of  the  Renaissance,  their  importance  and  approximately 
simultaneous  appearance  justify  the  idea  that  they  constitute 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  specifically  modern.  The  freedom 
of  inquiry  applied  in  the  Renaissance  to  letters  and  art,  and 
in  the  Reformation  to  religion,  was  now  applied  to  history, 
politics,  and  science.  A  multitude  of  individual  tendencies 
combined  to  initiate  the  age  of  archeological  discovery  and 
historical  research,  of  revolution  and  democracy,  of  natural 
science  and  invention,  of  capitalism  and  colonial  empire. 
These  were  destined  to  affect  not  only  the  stylistic  aspect  of 
architecture,  but  equally  the  nature  of  the  prevailing  types  of 
buildings  and  methods  of  construction,  as  well  as  the  extent 
to  which  these  were  diffused  over  the  world. 

General  characteristics.  Although  the  kaleidoscopic  inter- 
play of  forces  makes  it  difficult  to  generalize  regarding  the 
architectural  characteristics  of  the  period,  they  may  be  con- 
ceived broadly  as  the  result  of  a  synthesis  of  retrospective 
and  progressive  tendencies,  which  exist  side  by  side,  not 
unlike  the  academic  and  baroque  tendencies  in  the  previous 
period.  In  matters  of  form  and  detail  it  is  the  newly  won 
historical  understanding  of  previous  styles  which  has  been 
chiefly  influential,  resulting  in  a  series  of  attempted  revivals 
followed  by  a  season  of  eclecticism.  In  matters  of  plan 
and  construction,  however,  the  growth  of  material  civilization 
and  the  development  of  new  forms  of  government  and  com- 
merce have  produced  a  multitude  of  novel  types  of  buildings 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  461 

as  well  as  constant  changes  in  the  form  and  importance  of 
the  old  types,  making  every  supposed  revival  unconsciously 
a  new  creation.  Finally  there  has  begun  a  conscious  move- 
ment to  give  the  new  functional  types  and  structural  systems 
an  expression  that  shall  also  be  novel  and  entirely  charac- 
teristic. 

Complexity  of  development.  It  thus  comes  about  that, 
within  a  century  and  a  half  of  coherent  development  in 
practical  matters,  there  is  a  series  of  subordinate  phases 
distinguished  by  very  different  forms  of  detail.  Although  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  these  phases  might  be  distinguished, 
the  principal  ones  may  be  considered  as  four,  corresponding 
generally  to  |i^erfl.ry  and  cultural  phases : .  classicism,  lomajig 
ticism,  egjeg^gjsjn  (all  outgrowths  chiefly  of  the  historical 
nttitnH"),  a*1^  funrf*rm?1'SF1  (primarily  an  outgrowth  of 
natural  science).  As  each  of  these  phases,  like  the  academic 
and  baroque  movements,  varies  in  character  and  duration  in 
different  countries,  it  becomes  even  more  difficult  to  preserve 
a  strictly  chronological  and  local  order  during  the  discussion 
of  the  most  modern  architecture  than  it  is  during  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  architecture  immediately  preceding.  In  view 
of  the  fundamentally  international  character  of  the  archi- 
tectural tendencies,  and  their  uniform  order  of  predominance 
in  all  countries,  it  is  more  fruitful  to  consider  the  individual 
movements  in  their  general  sequence  rather  than  individual 
countries  one  by  one.  The  continuity  of  development  in 
any  given  individual  type,  and  the  simultaneous  existence  and 
interplay  of  movements  in  any  given  country,  scarcely  less 
characteristic,  may  be  indicated  by  the  way. 

Classicism:  study  of  classical  monuments.  The  first  of  the 
modern  movements  to  affect  architectural  forms  was  the 
flood  of  archeological  discovery  and  publication  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Hitherto  the  fund  of  knowledge 
concerning  ancient  buildings,  aside  from  the  details  of  the 
orders,  was  surprisingly  small.  Writers  and  engravers,  in 
general,  had  been  chiefly  concerned  with  the  construction  of 
academic  theories,  or  the  representation  of  the  buildings  of 
their  own  day — both  supposedly  based  on  the  antique,  but 
really  departing  from  it  with  the  greatest  freedom.  Palladio, 
to  be  sure,  had  published  rationalized  restorations  of  the 


462        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Roman  temples  as  early  as  1570,  and  in  1682  Desgodetz  had 
issued  his  far  more  accurate  drawings  of  the  monuments  of 
the  city  of  Rome.  These  were  but  isolated  forerunners,  how- 
ever, of  the  multitude  of  works  which  now  commenced  to 
appear,  many  of  them  illustrating  buildings  hitherto  unre- 
garded or  entirely  unknown.  In  1730  Lord  Burlington 
brought  out  many  of  Palladio's  drawings  of  Roman  buildings 
which  had  lain  a  century  and  a  half  in  manuscript.  In  174^, 
the  engraver  Piranesi_issued  his  first  rrt^g-g  the  commence- 
ment^ofa  coiossaT"series™o!^iews  ot  ancient  ruins  and  frag- 
ments, which  placed  before  the  public  the  great  wealth  of 
Roman  architecture  in  Italy,  and,  with  their  striking  artistic 
qualities,  powerfully  stimulated  the  vogue  of  the  antique. 
In  the  fifties  there  began  to  appear  illustrated  works  dealing 
with  Herculaneum,  and  later  with  Pompeii,  the  buried  Cam- 
panian  cities  which  exhibited  Roman  art  in  a  way  so  much 
more  lively  and  intimate  than  the  ruined  and  despoiled  monu- 
ments of  the  capital.  The  knowledge  of  Roman  architecture 
was  further  enriched  by  the  study  and  publication  of  the 
temples  at  Palmyra  and  Baalbek  by  ffiood  and  Dawkins 
(1753  and  1757)  and  of  the  palace  at  Spalato  by  Robert  Adam 
and  Clerisseau  (1764) — buildings  differing  widely  in  com- 
position and  deta'il  from  the  conventional  conceptions  of  the 
academic  theorists.  Scarcely  later  came  the  revelation  of 
Greek  monuments,  hitherto  known  only  by  the  vague  ac- 
counts of  a  few  travelers.  In  1750  and  1751  Cochin  and 
Soufflot_were  drawing  and  measuring  at  Paestum ;  Stuart  and 
.Revett  were  at  Athens.  A  few  years  later  publications  re- 
garding these  and  other  sites  began  to  pour  forth.  Leroy's 
Athens  appeared  in  1758,  the  first  volume  of  Stuart  and 
Revett's  Antiquities  of  Athens  in  1762,  Major's  Pcestum  in 
1768,  Chandler's  Ionia  in  1769,  with  a  stream  of  successors 
of  the  same  character  reaching  well  into  the  nineteenth 
century.  At  the  same  time  the  Comte  de  Caylus  and  Winckel- 
mann  were  laying  the  foundations  of  archeology  and  of  the 
history  of  art,  Winckelmann  asserting  for  the  first  time  the 
superiority  of  Greek  architecture  and  sculpture  over  those  of 
the  Romans. 

Reaction  against  the  baroque  and  against  academic  formula. 
The  increasing  appreciation  of  antiquity  was  coincident  with 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  463 

independent  tendencies,  already  visible  in  contemporary 
architecture.  The  rationalistic  advocacy  of  the  primitive 
orders  by  Laugier  in  1752,  the  appeal  for  a  "noble  simplicity 
and  quiet  grandeur"  which  Winckelmann  made  in  1755,  were 
based  rather  on  antithesis  to  contemporary  art  than  on  a  real 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  the  ancients.  The  reaction  from  the 
extreme  crescendo  of  the  baroque  had  already  begun,  even  in 
Italy,  in  such  works  as  the  Superga  and  the  facade  of  the 
Lateran.  In  France  the  manner  of  Servadony  prevailed  over 
the  rococo,  while  in  England  the  reversion  from  Wren  and 
Vanbrugh  to  strict  Palladianism  was  universal.  It  was  felt 
that,  in  the  striving  for  animation,  picturesqueness,  and 
originality,  dignity  and  earnestness  had  been  lost.  It  was 
these  sober  qualities,  which  so  many  were  seeking,  that  were 
now  found  superlatively  exemplified  in  certain  of  the  works  of 
antiquity. 

Characteristics  and  development  of  classicism.  The  result 
was  that  the  current  of  practice  was  turned  toward  the  closer 
imitation  of  classical  forms,  and  ultimately  even  of  classical 
dispositions  and  ensembles.  Architects  approached  the 
antique  directly,  and  not  through  Palladio  or  Vitruvius. 
Hitherto  the  orders  had  been  used  principally  in  the  decoration 
of  wall  surfaces ;  columns  and  pilasters  had  been  freely  grouped 
and  often  placed  above  a  high  basement.  The  temple  por- 
tico, except  in  England,  where  the  example  of  Palladio  was 
directly  followed,  had  been  used  very  rarely  or  not  at  all. 
Now,  on  the  other  hand,  it  became  almost  essential,  its 
columns  closely  and  equally  spaced,  rising  directly  from  the 
ground.  The  membering  of  walls  was  renounced  in  favor  of 
the  simplest  jointing  or  rustication.  Forms  like  those  of  the 
rectangular  temple  and  the  Pantheon,  determined  for  the 
most  part  in  advance,  had  now  to  be  employed  to  meet  not 
only  the  traditional  problems  of  the  church,  the  school,  and 
the  dwelling,  but  also  a  multitude  of  new  problems  in  the 
legislative  and  other  governmental  buildings,  the  banks, 
exchanges,  and  commercial  structures,  the  museums  and 
theaters,  assembly  and  concert  halls,  the  prisons  and  institu- 
tions which  great  political,  economic,  and  social  changes  were 
bringing  into  being.  Academic  conservatism,  especially  in 
France,  however,  hindered  the  literal  imitation  of  ancient 


464        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

precedent,  just  in  proportion  as  it  differed  from  the  currently 
accepted  canons.  Thus,  although  the  Roman  and  the  Greek 
tendencies  ran  side  by  side  almost  from  the  beginning,  the 
Roman  remained  predominant  until  shortly  before  1820. 
Even  then,  when  Greek  forms  surpassed  the  Roman  in 
popular  favor,  important  monuments  of  Roman  character 
still  continued  to  be  built. 

Roman  supremacy.  The  beginnings  in  France.  The  clas- 
sical reform  of  architecture  began  coincidently  in  France  and 
England  about  1760.  T*LS^jnte  Genevieve.  in  Paris  (1759-90), 
Soufflot  thought  to  imitate  the  portico  and  dome  of  the 
Pantheon  in  Rome  (Fig.  252).  For  the  first  time  in  France 
there  is  a  free-standing  portico  of  the  full  height  of  the  facade, 
its  Corinthian  columns  no  less  than  sixty-two  feet  high. 
This  soon  had  its  successors  in  such  buildings  as  the  Grajid 

gatre  at  TWdf^v  (1777-80),  by  Victor  Louis,  with  its  co- 
lossal portico  of  twelve  columns,  and  in  the  urban  dwellings  of 
Roman  cast.  The  characteristic  features  of  these  houses,  a 
peristylar  cour  d'honneur  with  a  triumphal  arch  at  the  grille, 
a  temple  portico  at  the  door,  and  a  saucer  dome  over  the 
circular  projecting  salon  toward  the  garden,  are  well  com- 
bined in  the  Hotel  de  Salm  (1782-86),  now  the  Palace  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  The  interiors  lost  the  flowing  lines  of  the 
rococo  and  turned  to  the  delicate,  simple  paneling  and  refined 
imitation  of  antique  motives  which  mark  the  style  of  Louis 
XVI. 

The  beginnings  in  England.  In  England  Robert  Adam  and 
his  brothers  (1760  jj.},  although  they  created  no  building  of 
such  monumental  quality  as  Sainte  Genevieve  in  Paris,  gave  a 
powerful  stimulus  to  the  employment  of  more  strictly  Roman 
forms,  especially  for  the  treatment  of  interiors.  Free-standing 
columns,  coffered  vaults  and  domes,  statued  niches  and  bas- 
reliefs  marked  the  principal  rooms  even  of  private  dwellings 
(Fig.  255),  while  a  delicate  surface  decoration  of  vases, 
griffins,  and  garlands  in  stucco,  with  Wedgwood  medallions 
and  slender  furniture  designed  in  harmony,  lent  the  rest  an 
air  of  unusual  distinction.  Although  Piranesi  and  others  had 
anticipated  many  of  these  features  or  assisted  the  brothers 
Adam  with  them,  it  was  the  skill  of  the  Adams  which  first 
welded  them  into  a  coherent  style.  Almost  simultaneously 


465 

came  the  first  work  inspired  by  Greek  models,  in  a  few  designs 
by  Stuart  and  by  Revett.  These  for  the  most  part,  however, 
were  composed  on  traditional  Palladian  lines,  the  details  of  the 
orders,  the  employment  of  anise  and  anthemia,  the  purity  of 
decoration,  being  the  principal  innovations.  This  refinement 


FIG.   252 — PARIS.      CHURCH  OF  SAINTE  GENEVIEVE.      (THE   PANTHEON) 


and  severity,  with  a  preference  for  the  heavier  orders,  grad- 
ually permeated  the  academic  style  of  building,  which  still 
long  continued. 

i  Literal  imitation  of  classical  models.  Monuments.  Mean- 
while, however,  a  more  strict  imitation  of  classical  examples 
was  beginning,  extending  not  merely  to  individual  details  and 
elements,  but  to  whole  monuments.  This  appeared  first  in 
the  sentimental  or  landscape  gardens,  which  were  decorated 
with  miniature  classic  temples  and  ruins.  Stuart  enriched  the 
repertoire  with  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates  and  other  Athen- 
ian types.  Ledoux,  in  his  octroi  gates  and  stations  for 
Paris  (1780-88),  made  liberal  use  of  classical  motives — the 


466         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

triumphal  column,  the  exterior  peristyle,  the  circular  temple — 
even  using  the  Greek  Doric  column  without  a  base.  Lang- 
hans  took  the  Propylaea  at  Athens  as  his  model  for  the  Brand- 
enburg Gate  in  Berlin  (i  788-0  iL  although  he  used  a  more 
Roman  type  of  column  and  introduced  other  notable  changes 
which  resulted  in  an  original  creation  (Fig.  253).  The  French 


FIG.    253 — BERLIN.       BRANDENBURG    GATE 


Republic  and  its  successors,  with  their  studied  imitation  of 
Rome,  naturally  reproduced  its  monuments  also;  and  Na- 
poleon outdid  all  others  with  the  column  of  the  Place  Vendome 
(1805-10),  modeled  on  that  of  Trajan,  the  Arc  du  Carrousel 
(1806),  modeled  on  the  Arch  of  Domitian  ("Constantine"),  and 
finally  the  colossal  ^rc-tlc  1'ELuilu  by  Gbalgrin  (Fig.  254).  In 
contrast  to  most  of  its  predecessors  this  showed  great  freedom 
in  the  rendering  of  the  antique  motive,  with  a  puristic  tendency 
very  characteristic  of  French  architects  of  the  revival  period. 
Other  literal  imitations.  Even  in  buildings  intended  for 
practical  use,  the  literal  following  of  classical  prototypes  began, 
on  the  initiative  of  rulers  and  statesmen.  Catharine  II. 
commissioned  Clerisseau  in  1780  to  design  her  a  dwelling 
which  should  be  strictly  Roman.  For  his  Temple  of  Glory, 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE 


467 


now  the  church  of  the  Madeleine,  Napoleon  insisted  on  the 
selection  of  the  design  by  Vignon  (1807),  a  peristylar  Corinthian 
temple  with  its  interior  treatment  suggested  by  the  halls  of 
the  thermae.  The  design  of  the  Bourse  (1808-27)  also  included 
an  external  peristyle,  but  its  great  breadth  did  not  permit  a 
pediment.  In  all  these  works  Roman  forms  were  employed, 


FIG.    254 — PARIS.      ARC   DE   TRIOMPHE   DE   L  ETOILE 


although  in  the  interiors  of  the  Empire  style — developed  by 
Percier  and  Fontaine  on  the  lines  of  the  Adams  and  Louis 
XVI. — Greek  decorative  elements  were  abundant,  and  even 
Egyptian  forms  became  popular  as  a  result  of  Napoleon's 
Eastern  campaign. 

The  Greek  supremacy.  The  Greek  supremacy  began  after 
the  Napoleonic  wars,  with  important  works  first  in  England 
but  later  especially  in  Germany.  Again,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Roman  revival,  the  use  of  Greek  orders  and  larger  ele- 
ments preceded  the  bodily  imitation  of  the  temple.  Among 
British  buildings  the  high  school  at  Edinburgh  (1825-29),  by 


z"z~ 
w  o 

c« 

gg 

us  s 
z  y 
<  2 


MODERN    ARCHITECTURE  469 

Thomas  Hamilton,  is  especially  noteworthy,  no  less  for  its 
plastic  handling  of  Greek  forms  in  the  wings  and  terraces  than 
for  its  reproduction  of  the  portico  of  the  Theseum  in  the 
central  feature  (Fig.  257).  In  Germany  a  great  personality, 
Friedrich  Schinkel,  succeeded  in  combining  classical  spirit 
with  modern  requirements  in  a  series  of  works  of  which  the 
_Royal  Theater  in  Berlin  (1818-21)  is  perhaps  the  most 
notable  (.Fig.  258^  Later,  under  the  patronage  of  Ludwig  I. 
of  Bavaria,  Leo  von  Klenze  carried  still  further  the  imitation 
of  classical  ensembles,  culminating  in  the  Walhalla  at  Regens- 
burg  (1830-42),  a  reproduction  of  the  Parthenon,  raised  on  a 
mighty*  Lei  i  auud  bCTbstructure.  The  idea  of  such  a  reproduc- 
tion had  long  captivated  designers:  Gilly  had  proposed  it  as 
early  as  1797  for  a  memorial  to  Frederick  the  Great;  the 
National  Monument  in  Edinburgh  had  been  begun  in  accord- 
ance with  it  in  1829. 

Reaction  from  literal  classicism.  With  these  buildings,  most 
of  them,  to  be  sure,  commemorative  monuments  without 
exacting  practical  functions,  the  high  tide  of  classicism  was 
reached,  and  a  reflux  set  in  toward  more  rationalistic  use  of 
classical  forms.  The  temple  portico  was  abandoned,  and  the 
Greek  suggestion  appeared  only  in  the  fondness  for  the  Doric 
order,  the  delicacy  of  the  projections,  the  elegance  of  the 
profiles.  In  France,  where  the  Roman  tendency  was  strongest 
and  the  academic  resistance  to  actual  copying  was  most 
tenacious,  this  last  phase  of  the  classical  movement  was  the 
first  in  which  Greek  influence  was  really  much  felt,  and  it  thus 
received  the  name  of  neo-grec.  By  other  tendencies  which 
they  incorporate,  however,  as  well  as  by  their  date,  the  ne"o- 
grec  buildings  belong,  in  spite  of  the  name  applied  to  them, 
less  with  the  revivalist  movement  than  with  the  following 
phases  of  eclecticism  and  functionalism. 

Types  of  buildings  during  the  classical  movement:  adminis- 
trative. Counter  to  the  extreme  formal  tendency  of  classicism 
— to  assimilate  all  buildings  to  a  single  classical  type — there 
had  constantly  been  the  utilitarian  tendency  to  differentiate 
types  of  buildings  more  and  more  in  accordance  with  their 
increasingly  specialized  functions.  This  had  already  begun 
under  the  old  regime,  but  it  was  powerfully  stimulated  by  the 
Revolution,  which  detached  many  governmental  functions 


FIG.    257 — EDINBURGH.      THE   HIGH    SCHOOL.       (RICHARDSON) 


FIG.   258 — BERLIN,  j   ROYAL   THEATER 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  471 

from  the  palace,  and  threw  theaters  and  museums  open  to  all. 
The  earliest  of  modern  administrative  buildings,  distinct  from 
the  palace,  were  developed  in  Great  Britain,  where  the  Ad- 
miralty, Somerset  House,  and  a  number  of  other  buildings 
fall  quite  within  the  period  of  academic  supremacy.  Even  in 
France,  however,  specialized  governmental  functions  had  also 
commenced  to  find  monumental  expression,  in  the  Mint  (1771- 
75)  and  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  Palace  of  Justice  after  1776. 
All  of  these  buildings,  however,  are  essentially  on  the  scheme 
of  the  palace,  as  their  multitude  of  small  rooms  permits ;  and 
even  the  latest  of  them  have  merely  a  Doric  solidity  and 
earnestness  to  suggest  this  specific  character.  A  more  pro- 
nounced suggestion  of  governmental  functions  was  first  given 
in  the  grandiose  facade  of  the  Four  Courts  in  Dublin,  with  its 
commanding  portico  and  classical  dome,  built  by  James 
Gandon  in  1784-96. 

Legislative  buildings.  Such  a  new  expression  for  govern- 
mental functions  was  soon  found  also  in  legislative  buildings, 
where  one  or  more  large  deliberative  halls  forced  the  adoption 
of  a  great  scale.  The  Parliament  House  at.  Duhk'n  had  led 
the  way  as  early  as  1730^39,  with  an  arcaded  portico  and  a 
domed  hall  suggested  by~the  Pantheon,  but  carried  out  with 
Palladian  forms.  The  .seats  were  arranged  in  a  semicircle 
in  one-half  the  octagonal  room.  For  the  meeting  of  the  States- 
General  at  Versailles  in  1789,  an  impressive  basilican  room 
with  Doric  columns  was  improvised  within  an  indifferent 
building.  Here  at  first  the  throne  was  at  one  end,  the  seats 
along  the  other  three  sides;  but  when  the  body  was  recon- 
structed as  the  National  Assembly  the  chair  was  moved  to 
the  center  of  a  long  side  and  the  seats  arranged  in  a  double 
horseshoe.  The  hall  with  semicircular  form,  on  the  lines  of  a 
Roman  theater,  was  afterward  developed  in  the  deliberative 
halls  of  the  Palais  Bourbon  in  Paris,  1795-1833,  and  was 
widely  followed  on  the  Continent.  For  the  unicameral 
legislative  building  a  powerful  external  expression  was  found 
in  the  Corinthian  portico  of  twelve  columns  prefixed  to  the 
Palais  Bourbon  in  1807. 

Prisons.  Related  to  political  movements  was  the  agitation 
for  the  reform  of  methods  of  punishment,  first  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  imprisonment  for  the  death  penalty  in  many  cases, 


472         A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

and  later  by  the  improvement  of  the  prisons  which  this  new 
order  had  caused  to  multiply.  Characteristic  of  the  first  phase 
was  Newgate  Prison  in  London  (1770-82),  designed  by  George 
Dance,  which,  with  Its  vast  rusticated  walls  and  narrow  door- 
ways, was  the  very  embodiment  of  force  (Fig.  259).  Hu- 
manity, sanitation,  or  reformation  of  the  prisoners,  however, 
had  little  consideration  until  well  into  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  the  form  of  prison  which  then  resulted  was  very  different. 
Ideas  of  correction  through  solitary  confinement  or  disciplined 
labor  ultimately  caused,  about  1835,  the  universal  adoption  of 
individual  cells  and  of  a  highly  organized  system  of  separate 
workrooms  and  yards  for  various  classes  of  prisoners. 

Banks,  exchanges,  and  commercial  structures.  Other  novel 
structures  were  called  into  being  by  the  commercial  and 
capitalistic  developments  of  the  age,  and  proved  to  find  con- 
genial garb  in  the  prevailing  classical  mode.  The  monumental 
portico  placed  before  the  bank  or  exchange  suggested  the  power 
of  finance  or  the  stability  of  credit,  while  the  blank  walls 
which  classical  purism  had  made  its  own  exactly  met  the 
necessities  of  vast  docks  and  warehouses.  In  the  rebuilding 
of  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  modern  financial  institutions, 
the  Bank  of  England  (1788-1835),  Sir  John  Soane  had  to 
design  a^wmdowless  exterior,  with  a  multitude  of  great  halls 
and  light  courts.  Although  the  general  external  treatment 
with  columns  and  blank  windows  is  less  frank  than  some  other 
solutions  of  similar  problems,  certain  features,  like  the  Loth- 
bury  Angle  (Fig.  256)  or  the  Lothbury  Courtyard,  are  master- 
pieces of  free  composition  with  classical  forms,  while  the 
interiors  are  full  of  dignity.  The  Bourse  in  Paris  and  the 
Royal  Exchange  in  London  (1840-44),  with  their  colossal 
porticoes,  continued  the  monumental  tradition.  The  utili- 
tarian side  of  commerce  had  its  most  notable  embodiment  in 
the  Halle  an  pl^  ip  Pprig  (.TyK^  a  circular,  domed  market- 
hall,  destituteTof  extraneous  adornment,  but  effective  by  its 
very  simplicity  and  adaptation  to  purpose. 

Theaters.  Not  less  novel  were  the  theaters,  museums,  and 
concert-halls,  which  responded  to  the  growth  of  democracy 
as  well  as  to  the  development  of  music  and  of  archeology. 
Such  features  had  hitherto  usually  been  adjuncts  of  the  palace ; 
now  they  became  detached,  _  and  subjects  for  special  treat- 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE 


473 


ment.  The  first  of  the  independent  theaters  to  receive  a 
monumental  exterior  had  been  the  Roval  Opera  in  Tiffin 
(1741-42),  for  which  Frejderic1"  +]if_  ^rciat  had  insisted  on  an 
English  Palladian  form.  The  Grand  Theatre  at  Bordeaux 
(i 777-80 j,  witn  its  still  more  classical  treatment,  was  followed 
in  the  Odeon  in  ffaris  (1700-1802)  and  in  many  others,  especial- 
ly in  France  and  England.  All  these  were  cubical  masses,  into 


FIG.    259— LONDON.       OLD    NEWGATE    PRISON.       (RICHARDSON) 

which  stage,  auditorium,  foyer,  and  vestibule  were  fitted. 
A  more  varied  form  made  its  appearance  in  Schinkel's  Royal 
Theater  in  Berlin  (1818-21),  with  which  a  concert-room,  ball- 
room, and  refreshment-rooms  had  also  to  be  incorporated 
(Fig.  258).  Wings  containing  these  adjuncts  were  added  to 
the  main  mass,  which  dominates  them  by  its  high-gabled 
clerestory,  its  monumental  steps,  and  its  Ionic  portico,  all 
treated  with  Hellenic  forms  of  slight  relief  and  with  severely 
classical  ornaments.  The  ultimate  classical  solution  of  the 
theater  problem  in  Germany  was  a  different  one,  for  which, 
not  the  temple  portico,  but  the  ancient  theater  itself  served  as  a 
model.  In  this  scheme  the  circular  end  of  the  auditorium, 
with  its  surrounding  corridor,  formed  the  facade,  clearly  in- 
dicating the  nature  of  the  building,  but  involving  considerable 


474        A   HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

sacrifices  in  the  vestibules,  foyers,  and  stairs  which  had 
become  such  prominent  features  of  the  modern  theater.  The 
most  notable  example,  the  old  Court  Theater  in  Dresden 
(1838-41),  shows  the  persistence  of  this  type  even  when  strict 
classical  forms  were  not  employed  (Fig.  264). 

Museums  and  concert-halls.  In  giving  the  museum  an  in- 
dependent form  Germany  led  the  way,  even  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  the  early  nineteenth  it  created  two  notable 
monuments,  the  Glyptothek  in  Munich  by  Von  Klenze 
(1816-30)  and  the  Old  Museum  in  Berlin  by  Schinkel  (1824- 
28).  These  were  both  severe  compositions  in  the  Greek 
Ionic  order,  which  was  used  also  in  the  British  Museum 
(1825-47),  designed  by  Sir  Charles  Barry.  For  the  problem 
of  the  concert-hall,  Schinkel  had  given  a  solution  of  the 
greatest  elegance  in  connection  with  the  theater  in  Berlin. 
An  auditorium  for  vast  popular  concerts  is  the  principal 
feature  of  Saint  George's  Hall  in  Liverpool  (1838-54)  which  in- 
cludes also  a  smaller  recital-nail;  two  court-rooms,  and  public 
offices.  The  exterior — by  the  gifted  and  youthful  Elmes — 
with  its  two  vast  Corinthian  porticoes,  its  commanding  attic, 
its  magnificent  terraces  and  approaches,  is  justly  famous  as 
among  the  most  monumental  of  all  modern  structures  (Fig. 
260). 

Other  types.  Churches.  For  the  problems  already  conse- 
crated by  time — the  church,  the  college,  the  house,  or  palace — 
classicism  did  not  achieve  new  solutions  of  the  same  impor- 
tance. This  was  partly  because  the  satisfactory  solutions  al- 
ready attained  in  the  previous  period  tended  to  be  followed, 
partly  because  the  problems  themselves  were  becoming 
secondary  to  the  new  ones  of  the  age,  and  partly  because 
other  forces  tended  before  long  to  take  these  very  problems 
entirely  out  of  the  hands  of  the  classical  architects.  In  the 
church,  as  elsewhere,  the  imitation  of  classical  models  was 
attempted,  both  the  rectangular-temple  type  and  the  Pantheon 
type  being  followed.  One  of  the  most  notable  of  the  re- 
vivalist churches  was  Saint  Pancras  in  London,  in  which  tHe 
beautiful  details  of  the rErec^tneTim^veTe^mitated — the  North 
Porch  for  the  entrance  portico,  the  Porch  of  the  Maidens  for 
the  sacristies,  with  the  Athenian  Tower  of  the  Winds,  twice 
repeated,  for  the  steeple.  Chalgrin,  in  the  church  of  Saint 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE 


475 


Philippe  du  Roule  in  Paris,  was  inspired  by  the  Christian- 
Roman  basilica,  initiating  a  notable  series.  Others,  however, 
followed  the  established  academic  types,  with  a  tall  central 
dome  or  two  western  towers,  merely  adopting  a  more  classical 
portico  and  details. 

Domestic  architecture.  Few  palaces  were  built  during  the 
period  which  classicism  shared  with  revolution.  Even  Na- 
poleon contented  himself  with  remodeling  the  interiors  of 
three  among  the  many  palaces  left  by  the  old  regime.  The 


FIG.    26O — LIVERPOOL.      SAINT   GEORGE'S   HALL.       (RICHARDSON) 


great  country  mansions  henceforth  likewise  multiplied  less 
rapidly,  although  magnificent  town  houses  continued  to  be 
built.  Like  the  hdtels  under  Louis  XVI.,  already  described, 
all  these  had  usually  a  portico  of  Roman  or  Greek  detail,  and 
often  a  circular  salon  suggested  by  the  Pantheon.  The  less 
ambitious  town  houses,  solidly  built  up  in  blocks,  had  usually 
a  most  restrained  treatment,  depending  on  the  proportions  of 
stories  and  openings  alone.  Often  the  town-planning  tradi- 
tions of  the  previous  period  were  continued  by  the  unified 
design  of  the  houses  in  whole  streets  and  squares,  as  in  the 
Adelphi  and  Regent's  Quadrant  in  London,  or  the  Rue  de 
Rivoli  in  Paris.  Colonnades  or  arcades  were  now  sometimes 


476        A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

adopted  in  the  lower  story,  to  shelter  the  foot  passengers  and 
to  increase  the  effect  of  Roman  magnificence.  In  the  minor 
European  country  houses,  a  type  most  frequent  in  England, 
there  was  some  attempt,  about  1820,  to  imitate  the  temple, 
although  not  without  breaking  its  unity  by  projections  or 
wings.  All  these  types  of  domestic  architecture,  however, 
as  well  as  the  classical  types  of  churches,  were  gradually  swept 
away  by  the  rise  of  romanticism,  which  for  a  time  even  bade 
fair  to  prevail  in  modern  architecture  as  a  whole. 

Romanticism:  cultural  changes.  Romanticism  in  architect- 
ure, like  classicism,  had  its  precursors  and  companions  in 
cultural  and  literary  movements.  Their  origins  in  some 
cases  were  quite  as  early  as  those  of  the  neo-classical  tendency. 
The  modern  appreciation  of  landscape  and  the  idea  of  the 
landscape  garden  had  begun  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Sentimentalism  came  in  toward  the  middle  of  the  century  with 
Richardson  and  Gray,  and  on  the  Continent,  in  the  sixties,  with 
Rousseau,  who  also  transplanted  and  quickened  the  cult  of 
nature.  At  the  same  time  England  and  Germany  awakened 
to  an  appreciation  of  their  northern,  national  heritage,  the 
mythology  and  legend,  the  history  and  art  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  importance  of  the  Goths  for  the  cultural  develop- 
ment of  Europe  was  affirmed  in  the  dialogues  of  The  Investi- 
gator in  1755;  the  principle  of  nationalism  in  history,  litera- 
ture, and  art  was  announced  by  Herder  and  his  friends  in 
Von  deutscher  Art  und  Kunst  in  1773.  The  ideas  thus  im- 
planted, however,  did  not  bear  their  full  fruit,  even  in  litera- 
ture, until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with 
Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  Byron  and  Scott,  with  the  Ger- 
man romanticists  who  influenced  Madame  de  Stael,  and, 
through  her,  made  way  for  Hugo  and  the  French  of  the 
thirties.  With  all  these  men  the  emotion  and  enthusiasm  of 
the  individual,  rather  than  the  following  of  academic  rules, 
were  proclaimed  as  the  springs  of  artistic  success.  The  emo- 
tional upheaval  was  naturally  accompanied  by  a  revival  of 
religious  faith,  which  found  its  expression  both  in  the  glori- 
fication of  traditional  Christianity  by  Chateaubriand  and  in 
the  preaching  of  a  personal  and  naturalistic  belief  by  Schleier- 
macher. 

The  medieval  revival  in  architecture.     Picturesqueness  and 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  477 

naturalness,  nationality  and  religion,  all  seemed  embodied, 
not  in  classic  architecture,  but  in  Gothic,  then  a  synonym  for 
the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages.  A  revival  of  medieval  architecture 
in  northern  lands  thus  grew  out  of  racial  and  contemporary 
conditions,  as  the  renaissance  of  classic  architecture  had 
developed  in  the  Italy  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Moreover, 
just  as  classic  architecture  had  never  quite  died  out  in  Italy 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  had  lingered  to  provide  a  con- 
genial soil  for  the  revival,  so  Gothic  architecture  had  never 
quite  ceased  to  be  practised,  especially  in  England.  Traditional 
survivals  of  Gothic  had  continued  in  country  churches  and  in 
the  Oxford  colleges  until  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  and  the 
reconstruction  and  repair  of  buildings  in  the  old  style  went  on 
under  Sir  Christopher  Wren  and  even  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  At  the  same  time  a  historical  interest 
in  the  heritage  of  medieval  monuments  was  evidenced  by 
antiquarian  works  such  as  the  Monasti  on  Anglicanum  (1655- 
73)  and  publications  dealing  with  individual  towns  and 
cathedrals.  Neither  the  books  nor  the  buildings  show  any 
very  accurate  knowledge  of  medieval  forms  of  detail  or  prin- 
ciples of  construction,  yet  they  furnished  a  living  stock  on 
which  the  romantic  idea  could  be  grafted.  It  thus  came 
about  that  England,  where  the  romantic  movement  in  litera- 
ture was  earliest  and  strongest,  was  also  essentially  the  home  of 
romanticism  in  architecture. 

Origins.  Pseudo-Chinese  and  Gothic  designs.  The  earliest 
purely  voluntary  departures  from  classical  architecture  in  the 
eighteenth  century  had  scarcely  the  serious  motives  of  later 
efforts,  being  suggested  rather  by  search  for  novelty  and 
modishness,  in  the  sportive,  trivial  structures  which  the  taste 
of  the  time  demanded  for  garden  shelters  and  the  assemblage 
of  intimate  parties.  The  reports  .of  Eastern  travelers  had 
aroused  enthusiasm  for  things  Chinese,  and  as  early  as  1740 
designs  for  porticoes  and  pavilions  supposedly  Chinese  were 
being  executed  siderby  side  with  miniature  classic  temples, 
both  in  France  and  England.  By  1750  others  supposedly 
Gothic  appeared  in  England,  as  similar  to  the  pseudo-Chinese 
in  their  fantastic  flourishes  as  they  were  dissimilar  to  their 
prototypes,  still  so  imperfectly  understood.  In  the  land- 
scape gardens  which  were  already  universal  in  England,  such 


478        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

buildings  now  began  to  acquire  a  sentimental  significance,  aS 
expressing  to  the  beholder  different  moods  which  the  scenes 
were  designed  to  evoke.  The  Gothic,  symbolizing  the  ideals 
of  rusticity  and  unworldliness  which  were  then  fashionable, 
rapidly  gained  ground. 

The  Gothic  revival  in  England.  First  phase,  c.  1760-1830. 
The  castellated  style.  The  first  to  extend  the  imitation  of 
Gothic  to  a  building  of  more  important  type  was  Horace 
Walpole,  in  the  remodeling  of  his  villa,  Strawberry  Hill 
(1753-76).  He  was  inspired  by  the  same  enthusiastic  admira- 
tion of  the  Middle  Ages  which  appears  in  his  pioneer  historical 
romance  The  Castle  of  Otranto  (1764),  and  he  hoped  to 
give  a  model  of  pure  Gothic  in  contrast  to  the  ignorant  per- 
versions which  were  in  vogue.  With  this  idea  he  imitated 
porches  and  battlements,  doors,  ceilings,  and  chimney-pieces 
from  old  work,  but  with  complete  unconsciousness  of  their 
inconsistency  in  periods  of  origin,  and  even  with  utter  disregard 
for  the  original  purposes  of  the  designs.  The  resulting ' '  castel- 
lated style,"  as  it  was  called,  was  widely  adopted  in  country 
seats,  on  many  of  which  such  well-known  academic  architects 
as  George  Dance  and  Sir  William  Chambers  were  employed. 
At  the  same  time  the  first  churches  with  similar  forms  were 
undertaken. 

Ecclesiastical  influence.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth 
century  new  forces  furthered  the  movement,  while  giving  it 
a  more  ecclesiastical  cast.  A  new  generation  of  antiquaries 
poured  forth  works  on  the  medieval  churches,  at  once  more 
numerous  and  more  adequately  illustrated  than  those  of  a 
century  earlier.  Attention  was  attracted  to  the  repair  of  the 
structures  themselves,  and  restorations  were  attempted, 
although  with  insufficient  knowledge  and  often  with  disastrous 
results.  James  Wyatt,  the  chief  of  the  restorers,  had  also  a 
great  vogue  as  an  architect  of  domestic  buildings.  Ecclesi- 
astical names  were  often  given  to  these,  and  the  details  of  their 
windows,  buttresses,  and  towers  were  derived  rather  from 
churches  than  from  the  old  manorial  halls.  Fonthill  Abbey 
(1796-1814),  the  extravagant  creation  of  the  romancer  William 
Beckford,  was  the  most  famous  of  these;  Eaton  Hall  (1803- 
14)  was  another  noteworthy  example  (Fig.  261).  Although 
religious  feeling  in  England  at  this  time  was  still  at  a  low  ebb, 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE 


479 


and  new  churches  were  few,  an  increasing  number  of  these 
followed  the  Gothic  style,  as  it  was  then  understood. 

Literal  imitation  of  medieval  models.  A  great  improvement 
in  grammatical  accuracy  of  detail,  as  well  as  an  appreciation 
of  chronological  consistency  of  style,  followed  the  publication, 
in  1819  and  1820,  of  Rickman's  Attempt  to  Discriminate  the 
Styles  of  English  Architecture,  and  of  Pugin  and  Willson's 


FIG.   26l — EATON   HALL     BEFORE   ALTERATION    IN    1870.       (EASTLAKE) 


Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture.  These  books,  which 
provided  for  the  first  time  a  tolerable  historical  account  of  the 
development  of  the  style,  and  accurate  geometrical  drawings 
of  its  examples,  opened  an  era  of  literal  copying  of  whole 
features,  conscientiously  culled  from  this  or  that  period,  most 
frequently  the  later  Perpendicular.  The  inclusion  of  drawings 
of  domestic  work  helped  bring  about  an  abandonment  of  the 
ecclesiastical  forms  previously  adopted  for  dwellings,  in  favor 
of  a  domestic  treatment  dependent  on  the  grouping  of  masses, 
gables,  and  chimneys — the  so-called  "baronial  style."  In 
planning,  which  was  still  dominated  unconsciously  by  classical 


480        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

ideals,  a  strict  symmetry  was  preserved;  while  in  construction 
and  decoration  lack  of  means  and  of  sympathetic  craftsmen 
prevented  a  reproduction  of  the  spirit  of  the  rich  medieval 
work  chosen  for  imitation. 

Second  phase,  1830-70.  Pugin.  The  second  and  far  more 
important  phase  of  the  revival  opened  with  the  work  of 
Augustus  Welby  Pugin,  a  son  of  the  elder  Pugin.  He  displayed 
at  once  a  freedom  and  fertility  of  invention  with  Gothic  forms 
which  had  hitherto  been  unknown,  and  a  zeal  for  their  ex- 
clusive adoption  which  had  the  force  of  religious  fanaticism. 
In  his  designs,  1830-52,  he  sought  and  attained  a  medieval 
picturesqueness  of  plan  and  mass;  in  his  studios  he  trained 
carvers  and  metal-workers  to  execute  the  details  of  his  facile 
designs;  in  his  writings  he  preached  the  revival  of  Christian 
architecture,  as  he  called  it,  for  civil  as  well  as  for  religious 
and  domestic  buildings.  At  the  same  time  began  the  revival 
of  ritual  in  the  Anglican  church,  and  the  study  of  church 
architecture  in  relation  to  ritual  arrangements.  As  a  result 
of  all  this,  Gothic  became  the  accepted  style  not  only  for 
country  residences  but  for  churches,  which  recovered  alike 
their  medieval  functions  and  their  medieval  form.  Archi- 
tects, many  of  whom  henceforth  devoted  themselves  exclusive- 
ly to  Gothic,  began  to  design,  within  the  accepted  English 
Gothic  modes,  with  greater  confidence  in  themselves. 

The  Houses  of  Parliament.  Simultaneously  with  the  first 
of  Pugin's  publications  (1836),  the  cause  of  medievalism 
achieved  a  triumph  in  the  retention  of  the  Gothic  style  in  the 
rebuilding  of  the  palace  at  Westminster — the  new  Houses  of 
Parliament,  executed  between  1840  and  1860  (Fig.  262).  The 
architect,  Sir  Charles  Barry,  was  a  man  experienced  in  design 
with  classical  as  well  as  with  Gothic  forms,  and  the  building 
was  currently  described  as  having  Tudor  details  on  a  classic 
body.  The  emphasis  in  massing,  however,  is  by  no  means  of  a 
classical  type,  for  it  is  laid  not  on  the  essential  components  of 
the  plan,  the  two  chambers,  but  on  towers  which  mark  the 
royal  entrance  and  support  the  clock.  Notable  qualities  of 
the  design  are  the  practical  solution  of  extremely  complex 
problems  in  plan,  including  accommodation  to  portions  of 
the  old  structure  still  remaining,  and  the  picturesque  employ- 
ment of  the  magnificent  river  site.  The  employment  of 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  481 

medieval  forms  in  a  national  monument  of  such  importance, 
of  course,  gave  the  revival  another  great  impetus. 

Ruskin.  An  impulse  of  different  sort,  yet  equally  or  more 
powerful,  was  given  meanwhile  by  the  writings  of  John  Ruskin. 
In  his  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture  (1849)  and  his  Stones  of 
Venice  (1851)  he  urged  a  return  to  the  methods  as  well  as  the 
forms  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  this  not  simply  on  grounds  of 
religion  or  of  ritual,  but  even  of  morality.  The  emancipation 


FIG.   262 — LONDON.      HOUSES   OF   PARLIAMENT 

of  the  individual  craftsmen  from  the  modern  industrial  system 
was  to  be  at  once  an  end  in  itself  and  a  means  to  the  attainment 
of  true  beauty  in  architecture.  This  was  proclaimed  to  lie 
not  in  abstract  qualities,  such  as  proportion,  but  in  honesty 
of  materials  and  of  structure,  and  in  evidence  of  human 
devotion  and  thought,  appearing  above  all  in  the  sculptured 
and  painted  details.  Such  an  animation  of  detail  and  color 
he  found  especially  in  the  marble  capitals  and  polychrome 
walls  and  mosaics  of  Italy,  to  which  his  admirers  soon  turned 
for  inspiration.  It  was  at  the  moment  when  architects  were 
wearying  of  the  restrictions  of  antiquarian  national  precedent, 
and  seeking  a  greater  liberty  of  invention.  Thus  many  who 


482        A  HISTORY  OP  ARCHITECTURE 

were  impatient  with  Ruskin's  principles  took  advantage  of 
this  or  that  individual  suggestion. 

Victorian  Gothic.  The  result  of  all  these  forces  was  the  so- 
called  Victorian  Gothic,  distinguished  by  great  elaboration  of 
detail,  polychromy  of  materials,  including  marble,  brick,  and 
encaustic  tiles,  and  a  leaning  toward  Italian  forms  of  "surface 
Gothic"  rather  than  the  northern  "linear  Gothic."  Among 
the  leading  exponents  of  the  style  were  Sir  Gilbert  Scott 
(1811-78)  and  his  pupil  George  Edmund  Street  (1824-81), 
who  in  long  and  active  careers  ran  through  a  number  of  its 
phases;  and  William  Butterfield  (1814-1900)  who  strove  to 
create  a  novel  development  with  a  variety  of  Gothic  and 
modern  elements.  Scott  and  others  of  the  group  even  ex- 
tended their  practice  beyond  the  bounds  of  England  by  success- 
ful competition  against  Continental  architects  of  all  schools. 

"  The  battle  of  the  styles."  By  1855  the  adherents  of  Gothic 
were  strong  enough  to  challenge  the  supremacy  of  classic 
architecture  in  secular  buildings  generally.  To  the  growing 
conviction  that  each  style  was  exclusively  appropriate  to 
certain  uses — the  Gothic  to  churches,  colleges,  and  rural 
architecture,  the  classic  to  public  buildings  and  urban  dwell- 
ings— they  opposed  the  traditional  belief  that  a  single  style 
must  prevail,  and  maintained  that  the  Gothic  was  superior  for 
all  purposes.  Thus  the  "battle  of  the  styles,"  which  had 
enkindled  over  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  continued  to  be 
fought  in  a  wider  field,  and  with  a  zeal  unknown  outside  of 
England.  The  Gothicists  were  not  without  their  successes, 
for  although  Lord  Palmerston  finally  forced  Scott  to  substitute 
a  classical  scheme  for  his  accepted  Gothic  design  for  the 
Foreign  Office  (1858-73),  victories  scon  followed  in  the 
Manchester  Assize  Courts  (1859-64)  and  Town  Hall  (1868- 
69),  both  by  Alfred  Waterhouse.  In  the  sixties  the  influence 
of  Viollet-le-Duc  and  of  French  Gothic,  with  its  greater 
structural  logic,  gave  the  movement  a  fresh  element  of  strength 
as  well  as  fresh  material.  With  the  adoption  of  Street's 
design  for  the  national  Law  Courts  in  1868,  the  adherents  of 
Gothic  felt  their  cause  vindicated.  The  building  proved, 
however,  to  mark  the  end  of  their  supremacy.  By  the  time 
of  its  completion,  1884,  it  met  little  but  condemnation,  and 
the  conclusion  was  outspoken  that  Gothic  was  unfit  for  public 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  483 

buildings.  The  fundamental  cause  lay  less  in  certain  defects 
in  the  building  than  in  the  gradual  change  of  public  taste. 
The  belated  enthusiasm  of  the  revivalists  could  no  longer 
withstand  the  eclecticism  which  elsewhere  prevailed  so  widely, 

\    /and  which  had  steadily  gained  strength  even  in  England. 

|Y  Romanticism  in  Germany;  Gothic  and  Romanesque.  On  the 
Continent  the  medieval  revival  was  most  vital  in  Germany, 
where,  as  in  England,  it  was  associated  with  a  nationalistic 
movement.  Goethe's  youthful  panegyric  on  the  cathedral 
of  Strasburg  (1773)  long  remained  alone,  however,  and  it  was 
not  until  after  the  Wars  of  Liberation  that  the  brothers 
Boisseree  awakened  a  general  interest  in  the  artistic  monu- 
ments of  the  German  past.  Pseudo-Gothic  buildings  had 
appeared  as  accessories  to  the  landscape  gardens  on  English 
models  since  their  introduction  about  1770,  but  the  Gothic 
style  was  not  seriously  considered  for  important  buildings 
before  the  time  of  Schinkel,  who  made  a  Gothic  project  for 
the  cathedral  of  Berlin  in  1819.  Of  his  two  projects  for  the 
Werderkirche  (1825),  the  Gothic  and  not  the  classical  one  was 
chosen.  The  exterior,  as  was  to  be  expected,  was  Gothic 
rather  in  detail  than  in  spirit  and  constructive  principle.  The 
interior  was  conceived  with  an  insight  in  advance  of  the  day. 
Henceforth  the  style  was  frequently  employed,  with  steadily 
increasing  knowledge,  in  the  building  of  churches,  and 
occasionally  in  other  buildings,  although  it  never  became 
universal,  and  even  as  the  medium  of  romantic  expression  had 
to  share  honors  with  the  still  more  national  Romanesque. 
The  strongest  supporter  of  the  Romanesque  was  Friedrich 
von  Gartner  in  Munich  (1792-1847),  whose  buildings,  how- 
ever, show  a  large  measure  of  Italian  influence.  The  most 
notable  modern  Gothic  church  in  German  lands,  which  may 
still  be  considered  an  outgrowth  of  the  revival,  is  the  Votive 
Church  in  Vienna,  built  by  Ferstel  in  1853-79,  on  the  scheme 
of  a  cathedral  with  western  towers  and  spires. 

Romanticism  in  France.  In  France  before  the  romantic 
outburst  of  the  thirties  the  strength  of  classical  architecture 
was  so  great  that,  although  the  "hamlets"  of  Trianon  and 
Chantilly  initiated,  as  early  as  1775,  garden  architecture  on 
English  models  in  a  style  supposedly  Gothic,  the  mode  long 
remained  without  serious  adoption.  Meanwhile,  however, 


484        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

the  Musee  des  Monuments  Frangais,  collected  by  Alexandra 
Lenoir  from  the  churches  and  chateaux  destroyed  by  the 
Revolution,  was  revealing  to  the  French  the  glories  of  their 
own  medieval  art;  and  the  Histoire  de  I'art  of  Seroux  d'Agin- 
court  (1811-23),  the  first  general  work  devoted  to  the  arts 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  registered  a  new  appreciation  of  them. 
By  1825  such  a  work  as  the  chapel  at  Les  Herbiers  in  Vendee 
could  be  constructed,  with  tolerable  knowledge  of  the  details 
of  French  Gothic,  although  still  with  rigid  classical  symmetry. 
A  more  popular  appreciation  was  stimulated  by  Victor  Hugo's 
Notre-Dame  de  Paris  in  1831,  and  a  more  scientific  under- 
standing was  created  by  the  archeologists  De  Caumont  and 
Lassus,  and  above  all  by  the  architect  Viollet-le-Duc  (1814- 
79),  who  developed,  in  the  years  following  1840,  a  wide 
activity  as  a  restorer  of  medieval  buildings  and  as  a  writer  on 
the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  his  great  Dictionnaire  de 
V  architecture  fran$aise  du  XI.  au  XVI.  siecle  (1854-68)  he 
emphasized  the  idea  that  the  principles  of  Gothic  architecture 
were  essentially  structural,  and  thus  his  influence  tended  to 
make  current  designs  in  the  style  more  logical  and  organic. 
By  Louis  Napoleon's  appointment  of  Viollet-le-Duc  to  a 
professorship  at  theEcole  des  Beaux- Arts  the  Gothic  movement 
received  an  official  sanction  in  the  very  citadel  of  the  academic 
forces,  but  the  opposition  was  so  strong  that  even  the  Emperor 
was  forced  to  abandon  his  attempt.  On  the  whole,  few  new 
buildings  resulted  from  the  Gothic  movement,  and  these  were 
almost  exclusively  churches.  The  most  striking  of  them  is 
Sainte  Clotilde  in  Paris  (Fig.  263),  built  in  1846-59  by  the 
architects  Gau  and  Ballu,  with  twin  spires  and  fourteenth 
century  detail.  This  church,  however,  is  relatively  frigid 
compared  with  some  examples  from  the  last  days  of  the 
movement,  after  1860. 

Influence  of  the  romantic  movement  on  the  development  of 
types  of  buildings.  The  types  of  buildings  to  which  the 
romantic  movement  contributed  were  almost  exclusively  those 
having  direct  precedents  in  the  Middle  Ages — such  as  churches, 
schools,  town  halls,  and  dwellings.  Even  in  these  types  the 
development  was  largely  a  formal  one,  the  dispositions  remain- 
ing close  to  those  of  medieval  times,  as  the  national  character 
of  the  precedents  and  the  relative  stability  of  the  problems 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


485 


permitted.  It  was,  indeed,  precisely  the  superiority  of 
medieval  dispositions  in  fulfilling  the  needs  of  modern  life 
which  the  Gothicists  maintained  as  one  of  their  chief  theses. 
Their  innovations  respecting  plan  and  structure  were  thus, 
for  the  most  part,  novel  only  in  relation  to  the  classical  forms 
which  had  immediately 
preceded  them ,  since 
medieval  dispositions 
and  modes  of  construc- 
tion were  generally  fol- 
lowed as  well  as  medieval 
forms  of  detail.  So  in 
the  church  Catholic,  and 
even  beyond  it,  the  long 
aisled  naves  and  chancels 
of  the  Middle  Ages  sup- 
planted the  domes  and 
halls  of  the  Renaissance 
and  of  Protestantism. 
Other  types  were  influ- 
enced in  certain  lands 
only.  In  England  the 
flexible  scheme  of  the 
Tudor  or  Elizabethan 
manor,  with  its  freedom 
in  the  fenestration  and 
in  the  treatment  of  ser- 
vice quarters,  replaced 
the  strict  symmetry  of 
the  Palladian  house. 
The  old  residential  col- 
leges of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  were  followed  in  the  further 
development  of  these  institutions  and  of  the  English  board- 
ing schools.  In  Germany  the  late  Gothic  town  halls  and 
guild  halls  of  the  country  and  of  Flanders  were  taken  as 
models  for  new  constructions  devoted  to  similar  uses. 

Eclecticism:  conditions  and  ideals.  Long  before  the  force 
of  the  romantic  movement  had  spent  itself,  it  had  become 
but  one  of  many  forces  influential  in  architectural  style, 
united  only  as  emanations  of  a  general  eclecticism.  This 


FIG.   263 — PARIS.       SAINTE   CLOTILDE 


486        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

freedom  of  selection  from  a  number  of  styles  was  just  as  surely 
grounded  in  the  conditions  of  the  time  as  the  uniform  adherence 
to  a  single  style  had  been  in  some  earlier  times.  A  choice 
between  two  styles,  to  be  sure,  had  often  been  offered  to 
architects  before,  as  when  Gothic  art  was  introduced  into 
Italy  in  the  thirteenth  century  or  Renaissance  art  into  the 
north  in  the  sixteenth.  The  mere  alternative  of  neo-classic 
or  revived  Gothic  was  thus  of  itself  nothing  new  in  kind ;  the 
novelty  was  that  the  struggle  between  them  did  not  end,  as  it 
had  always  done  before,  in  the  triumph  of  either  one,  but  that 
both  continued,  subdivided  further,  and  received  the  addition 
of  still  others.  The  reason  lay  in  the  growth  of  historical 
knowledge,  one  of  the  most  characteristic  creations  of 
modernity,  which,  for  the  first  time,  made  the  forms  of  many 
styles  thoroughly  familiar  to  a  single  generation.  This  had 
already  contributed  largely  to  the  growth  of  classicism  and 
romanticism,  and  to  their  increasing  differentiation  into  Greek 
and  Roman  phases,  Gothic  and  Romanesque  phases,  with 
further  alternatives  offered  by  subordinate  chronological  and 
local  varieties — constituting  in  themselves  a  field  for  the 
exercise  of  a  certain  measure  of  eclecticism.  To  these  the 
historical  spirit  now  added  other  styles  unconnected  with  the 
neo-classic  and  romantic  programs,  and  soon  created  among 
designers  the  conscious  principle  of  complete  freedom  of 
choice  between  the  various  historical  styles.  This  expressed 
itself  first  in  the  sheer  desire  to  create  a  collection  of  historical 
imitations;  it  passed  to  the  adoption  of  a  given  style  on 
grounds  of  personal  preference  or  supposed  appropriateness  to 
the  problem  in  hand,  later  sometimes  to  the  combination  of 
elements  from  a  number  of  styles  and  the  creation  of  a  hybrid 
which  might  serve  as  a  personal  medium  of  expression. 

Origins  of  eclecticism  in  architecture.  .  The  beginnings  of  this 
wider  knowledge  and  wider  eclecticism  themselves  can  be 
found  quite  early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Viennese 
architect,  J.  B.  Fischer  von  Erlach,  published  his  pioneer 
Enlw urff  einer  historischen  Architektur,  1721,  including  illustra- 
tions, systematically  arranged,  of  pre-classical,  Eastern,  and 
Greek  buildings,  as  then  understood,  besides  those  of  Rome  and 
of  contemporary  France  and  Germany.  The  eighteenth- 
century  gardens  at  Kew  and  elsewhere  contained  imitations 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  487 

of  Moorish  pavilions  and  Turkish  mosques,  as  well  as  their 
Greek,  Roman,  Gothic,  and  Chinese  structures.  Such  exotic 
models  were  obviously  unsuited  for  any  wide  adoption, 
however,  and  the  same  was  true  of  the  Egyptian  motives 
made  popular  by  Napoleon's  Eastern  campaigns. 

The  ''Italian  style."  Serious  productions  outside  the 
classical  and  romantic  movements  resulted  first  from  the  study 
of  the  Italian  styles  of  the  Renaissance.  Appreciation  of 
these  was  a  by-product  of  the  Italian  sojourn  which  formed 
part  of  the  traditional  education  for  clients  as  well  as  for 
architects.  The  classicists  appreciated  first  the  buildings  of 
the  High  Renaissance,  at  once  most  classical  and  most  in  view 
in  the  tourist  centers,  Rome  and  Venice.  Percier  and  Fontaine, 
in  two  works  devoted  to  the  Roman  palaces  (1798)  and  villas 
(1809),  were  among  the  earliest  to  call  attention  to  the  style 
and  to  make  drawings  available  for  imitation.  The  romanti- 
cists, a  little  later,  extended  their  admiration  from  the  medieval 
buildings  of  Italy  to  those  of  the  earliest  Renaissance  in 
Florence.  Fruits  of  these  appreciations  were  as  usual  a 
decade  or  two  in  appearing  in  current  practice.  By  1820, 
however,  the  old  Opera  House  in  Paris  was  built  in  the  style 
of  the  Basilica  at  Vicenza,  and  numerous  other  buildings 
recalled  the  arch  orders  or  columnless  facades  of  the  Italian 
palaces.  Germany  took  the  lead  in  1825-30,  with  buildings 
by  Klenze  and  Gartner  in  Munich — the  Pinakothek  with  its 
pilastered  arches,  the  Konigsbau,  the  Ministry  of  War,  and  the 
Royal  Library,  with  their  novel  suggestion  of  the  Pitti  Palace 
and  other  Florentine  designs.  In  England  the  Italian  manner 
came  in  with  Barry,  who  adopted  it  as  the  most  suitable  ex- 
pression for  the  London  clubs,  of  which  his  Travelers'  Club, 
1829-31,  initiated  a  long  series. 

Later  developments.  With  the  advent  of  the  "Italian" 
style,  as  it  was  called,  the  field  was  open  for  imitations  and 
inspirations  of  the  greatest  variety.  The  material  was 
furnished  not  only  by  individual  observation  but  by  a  multi- 
tude of  special  publications  concerning  monuments  of  the 
most  diverse  styles.  In  practice  a  general  tendency  to 
follow  more  and  more  recent  styles,  like  the  baroque,  aca- 
demic, and  rococo,  may  perhaps  be  discerned — following  the 
repetition  of  history  already  begun  by  the  successive  imita- 

17 


tion  of  classic,  Gothic,  and  Renaissance;  but  the  development 
is  neither  a  universal  nor  a  regular  one.  It  thus  becomes 
necessary  to  sketch  the  trend  of  subsequent  developments  in 
each  country  singly,  rather  than  to  seek  to  follow  this  or  that 
stylistic  thread,  often  confusedly  interwoven  with  others  even 
in  the  work  of  an  individual  architect.  Although  manifesta- 
tions of  the  eclectic  movement  appear  in  all  countries,  there 
are  marked  differences  in  its  strength.  Germany,  whose 
scholars  took  the  lead  in  historical  study  of  architecture,  gave 
itself  freely  to  experiment  with  varied  historic  modes  of 
expression,  whereas  England,  torn  by  its  furious  struggle 
between  classicism  and  romanticism,  came  late  to  a  really 
eclectic  standpoint,  and  France,  more  than  the  others,  re- 
mained true  to  the  classical  tradition.  In  proportion  to  the 
adoption  of  eclectic  practice  there  appeared  another  general 
phenomenon  which  may  be  noted  here  once  for  all.  This  was 
the  increasing  gulf  between  the  few  designs  of  trained  archi- 
tects and  the  great  mass  of  buildings  erected  by  men  who 
were  no  longer  sustained  by  a  traditional  knowledge  of  any 
one  or  even  two  sets'  of  forms,  and  who  could  not  adequately 
master  others  even  if  they  would. 

Germany:  Munich.  In  Germany,  eclecticism  dominated 
architectural  practice  from  1825  to  1890.  Within  this  time 
falls  the  phenomenal  growth  of  German  cities,  which  thus 
bear  deeply  the  impress  of  the  movement.  The  first  of  them 
to  receive  it  was  Munich,  essentially  the  creation  of  Ludwig  I. 
(1825-48),  under  whose  personal  inspiration  Klenze  and 
Gartner  turned  now  to  Greece,  now  to  Italy,  now  to  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Ludwig's  successor,  Maximilian  II.  (1848-64),  gave 
his  eclecticism  a  different  form,  wishing  to  create  a  new  style 
by  a  combination  of  elements  from  the  older  ones.  The  task 
fell  to  the  architect  Burklein,  whose  buildings  are  effective  in 
their  balanced  yet  picturesque  composition  and  in  their 
rhythmical  subdivision  into  bays,  but  suffer  so  much  from  their 
poverty  of  execution  as  to  have  discredited  the  attempt. 

Dresden  and  Vienna.  A  man  of  powerful  personality, 
Gottfried  Semper  (1804-79),  had  meanwhile  turned  the  scale 
in  favor  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  by  his  buildings  in  Dresden, 
especially  the  Court  Theater  (1838-41,  Fig.  264).  Semper 
was  also  one  of  the  creators  of  modern  Vienna,  in  the  vast 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


4*9 


buildings  of  the  magnificent  Ringstrasse  on  the  lines  of  the 
fortifications  removed  in  1858-60.  A  beginning  had  been 
made  in  Ferstel's  Votive  Church  and  in  the  Opera  House 
built  by  Van  der  Null  and  Siccardsburg  in  1861-69,  with  forms 
reminiscent  of  the  French  Renaissance  under  Francis  I, 
Semper,  in  his  designs  for  the  extension  of  the  Imperial  Palace, 
with  the  Court  Theater  (1871-89)  and  the  Museums  of  Art 
and  of  Natural  History  (1870-89),  continued  to  draw  his 


FIG.  264 — DRESDEN.   OLD  COURT  THEATER.   (SEMPER) 

suggestion  from  the  Italian  styles,  but  now  with  a  strong 
leaning  toward  the  grandiose  effects  of  the  baroque.  Among 
the  later  buildings  of  the  Ringstrasse  are  the  Rathaus  (1873- 
83),  built  by  Friedrich  Schmidt  with  German  Gothic  forms, 
the  University  and  the  Palace  of  Justice,  with  a  mixture  of 
French  and  Italian  Renaissance  forms,  and  the  Houses  of 
Parliament  (1874-83)  with  the  forms  of  neo-Hellenism. 

Berlin,  Leipzig,  and  Strasburg.  With  the  founding  of  the 
German  Empire  began  a  period  of  predominance  for  Berlin, 
distinguished  especially  by  the  building  for  the  Reichstag 
(1882-94)  by  Wallot,  and  of  the  cathedral  (1888-95)  by 
Raschdorff.  The  architectural  forms  adopted  as  a  basis, 


490        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

sometimes  academic,  sometimes  Renaissance,  were  as  a  rule 
greatly  modified  by  the  influence  of  the  baroque,  and  showed 
the  study  of  German  even  more  than  of  Italian  examples. 
This  style,  backed  by  the  influence  of  the  court,  has  remained 
in  favor  for  governmental  buildings  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of 
the  modernists.  One  of  its  principal  contemporary  adherents 
is  Ludwig  Hoffmann,  who  achieved  success  with  the  Imperial 
Supreme  Courts  in  Leipzig  (1884-95)  and  still  retains  the 
leadership  of  the  conservatives.  A  third  monumental  creation 
of  the  new  German  Empire  is  the  imposing  group  of  buildings 
erected  in  Strasburg  about  1890,  in  academic  and  baroque 
forms.  For  religious  buildings  the  medieval  styles  have 
continued  to  be  generally  preferred,  while  for  town  halls  late 
Gothic  or  German  Renaissance  forms  have  been  frequently 
employed. 

Eclecticism  in  England.  In  England  eclecticism  remained 
for  a  long  time  less  the  result  of  conscious  tolerance  than  the 
unintentional  product  of  warring  factions,  each  of  which 
insisted  on  the  universal  superiority  of  its  chosen  style.  The 
classical  side  was  chiefly  maintained,  after  1840,  by  adherents 
of  a  somewhat  free  rendering  of  antique  or  Italian  motives, 
allied  to  the  French  neo-grec.  Their  principal  representatives 
were  Cockerell,  best  known  for  his  restrained  designs  for 
branches  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  Pennethorne,  whose 
University  of  London  (1869),  originally  designed  in  Gothic 
forms,  retains  a  vertical  movement  in  its  rich  Venetian  garb. 
Although  Victorian  Gothic  also  had  its  wide  variety  of  proto- 
types, final  acceptance  of  the  principle  of  general  liberty  of 
choice  scarcely  came  before  1870.  The  style  which  then 
obtained  the  preference  was  no  one  of  those  previously  favored, 
but  the  so-called  "Queen  Anne."  This  took  its  suggestion 
from  the  vernacular,  half -classic  English  domestic  architecture 
of  the  late  seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  centuries,  but 
sought  a  free  adaptation  to  practical  requirements  and  left 
considerable  liberty  to  the  personality  of  the  individual 
architect.  Such  individuality  was  also  exercised  in  certain 
experiments  with  other  styles,  while  the  Gothic,  on  the  whole, 
remained  the  rule  for  churches,  as  it  remains  in  England  even 
to  the  present  day. 

"Queen  Anne"  and  "Free  Classic."     The  creators  of  the 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


491 


Queen  Anne  were  Eden  Nesfield,  in  his  lodges  at  Regent's 
Park  (1864)  and  Kew  (1866),  and  Norman  Shaw  in  his  office 
building,  New  Zealand  Chambers  (1873,  Fig.  265).  These 
buildings  had  the  frank  expression  of  a  variety  of  materials 
which  the  Gothic  school  had  initiated,  forms  recalling  the 
Dutch  character  which  reigned  in  the  English  architecture  of 
William  and  Anne,  and  an  individuality  of  combination  which 
was  modern.  The  union  was  timely,  and  buildings  in  the  same 
general  manner  multiplied.  They  included  not  only  residences, 
to  which  the  founders  of  the  style  and  many  others  devoted 
themselves  with  results  of  uncommon 
livableness,  but  also  more  ambitious 
buildings  such  as  banks  and  theaters, 
in  which  its  residential  origin  and 
smallness  of  scale  rendered  it  less 
monumental  than  picturesque.  A 
higher  degree  of  monumentality  be- 
gan to  be  sought  during  the  nineties 
through  the  reintroduction  of  Palla- 
dian  elements.  Thus  was  produced 
the  so  -  called  ' '  Free  Classic  "  —  a 
species  of  baroque  in  which  individual 
liberty  continued  to  hold  a  large 
place  —  which  has  dominated  the 
public  and  urban  architecture  of 
England  until  very  recently.  Among 
its  adherents  may  be  mentioned  John 
Belcher,  whose  Institute  of  Chartered 
Accountants,  1895,  was  the  manifesto 
of  the  school,  and  Sir  Aston  Webb. 
Within  the  last  five  years  a  tendency 
has  been  visible  to  return  to  more 
strictly  academic  forms,  encouraged 
by  the  teaching  of  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts  and  the  reversion  to  clas- 
sical architecture  in  America.  The  facade  of  the  Royal  Auto- 
mobile Club  (19 1 1 ),  modeled  on  the  buildings  of  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde,  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  striking  instances. 

Other  styles.     Beside  this  main  tide  of  eclecticism  in  England 
has  run  a  continuance  of  the  medieval  tradition — now  no  longer 


FIG.  265 — LONDON.  NEW 
ZEALAND  CHAMBE'RS. 
(MUTHESIUS) 


492         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


regarded  as  a  counter-current — in  the  building  of  country 
houses  and  churches.  Here  Sedding,  Bodley,  Pearson,  and 
others  have  worked  within  a  chosen  range  of  historic  national 
forms,  scrupulously  respecting  honesty  of  materials  and  work- 
manship. They  have  contrived  to  give  their  designs  a  personal 
impress  and  at  the  same  time  to  come  nearer  the  spirit  of  the 

old  masters  than  had 
their  predecessors 
whose  imitations  were 
more  literal  (Fig.  267). 
The  simple  country 
parish  churches  es- 
pecially they  have  en- 
dowed with  a  devo- 
tional character  and  a 
suitability  to  the  land- 
scape  which  had 
hitherto  escaped 
modern  architecture 
(Fig.  268).  As  the 
Anglican  church  has 
appropriated  the 
medieval  architecture 
of  England,  the 
Roman  church  there 
has  turned  to  other 
styles.  Thus,  since 
1895,  in  the  cathedral 
of  Westminster,  J.  F. 

Bentley  has  employed  forms  predominantly  Byzantine,  securing 
an  interior  of  vast  spatial  effect  and  deeply  religious  character 
(Fig.  266).  The  various  dissenting  sects  have  continued  their 
traditions  by  following  mainly  the  current  classical  or  baroque 
styles.  Until  recently  it  was  not  wholly  unusual  to  find  more 
exotic  styles  essayed  in  secular  architecture  as  well  as  in  re- 
ligious. Thus  Alfred  Waterhouse  employed  a  personal  variety 
of  Romanesque  in  his  monumental  Museum  of  Natural  History 
at  South  Kensington,  and  Aston  Webb  and  Ingress  Bell  made 
use  of  a  modified  French  Renaissance  in  the  Law  Courts  at 
Birmingham.  Of  late  years,  however,  eclecticism  in  England 


FIG.  266 — LONDON.    WESTMINSTER  CATHEDRAL 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE 


493 


has  become  less  personal,  and  the  individualists  are  to  be  found 
rather  among  those  who  abjure  all  historic  forms. 

Eclecticism  in  France.  Secular  buildings.  In  France,  where 
congruity  with  a  taste  developed  on  classical  architecture  is 
the  criterion  of  every  experiment  in  other  styles,  eclecticism 


FIG.   267 — FLETE  LODGE,   NEAR  HOBLETON.      (MUTHESIUS) 

was  relatively  a  matter  of  nuances,  except  in  churches  and 
country  villas.  The  Italian  manner  of  the  thirties  was 
followed  by  a  mingling  of  Italian  and  Greek  influences  in  the 
so-called  ne"o-grec.  Labrouste,  Due,  and  Duban,  the  first 
pensioners  of  the  French  Academy  to  study  the  temples  of 
Paestum  and  other  Greek  monuments,  were  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  in  France.  It  found  expression  in  Duban's 
Bramantesque  work  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  (1832-62) 
and  Labrouste's  refined  facade  of  the  Library  of  Sainte  Gene- 
vieve  (1843-50,  Fig.  269),  where  Greek  delicacy  of  profiling 
was  employed  in  a  facade  reminiscent  of  the  Tuscan  palaces. 
The  contemporary  interest  in  things  romantic  and  national 
led  to  a  revival  of  the  style  of  the  French  Renaissance,  stimu- 


494        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

lated  especially  by  the  enlargement  of  the  Hdtel  de  Ville  in 
Paris  (1836-54)  and  its  rebuilding  after  the  Commune.  Under 
the  Second  Empire  a  powerful  impulse  toward  the  baroque, 
which  so  well  expressed  a  luxurious  society,  was  given  by  a 
genius  of  the  first  order,  Charles  Garnier.  In  the  Paris 
Opera  (1861-74,  Fig.  270)  he  took  suggestions  from  the  late 
Venetian  forms,  in  the  Casino  at  Monte  Carlo,  from  the 


FIG.   268 — HOARCROSS.      CHURCH   OF   THE   HOLY   ANGELS 

Roman  baroque,  employed  with  a  technical  facility  and  a 
orofusion  of  detail  which  were  his  own.  In  the  widened 
conception  of  the  classic  which  still  dominated  French  archi- 
tecture on  its  formal  side,  the  influence  of  Garnier  has  long 
continued  to  be  felt.  Thus  the  Musee  Galliera  by  Ginain, 
the  Petit  Palais  des  Beaux- Arts  by  Girault  (1900),  in  the  main 
perpetuate  his  traditions. 

Churches.  In  the  building  of  churches  the  identification  of 
Christianity  with  the  Middle  Ages  led  to  wider  departures 
from  the  classic  than  in  secular  buildings,  even  where  romanti- 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


495 


cism  did  not  dictate  the  adoption  of  Gothic.  The  Romanesque 
was  chosen  as  a  compromise  even  before  1840,  and  after  that 
date  churches  in  that  style  multiplied  in  the  metropolis  as 
well  as  in  the  provinces.  The  variant  which  came  to  be 
preferred  was  one  reminiscent  of  the  buildings  of  Angouleme 
and  Aquitaine,  with  their  suggestion  of  Byzantine  forms. 
The  most  conspicuous  example  is  the  great  church  of  the 


FIG.    269 — PARIS.      BIBLIOTHEQUE   SAINTE   GENEVIEVE 


Sacred  Heart  at  Montmartre  by  Abadie  and  Daumet,  begun 
in  1873  (Fig.  271).  Its  elevated  site,  lofty  domes,  and  gleam- 
ing whiteness  make  it  a  striking  object  in  the  panorama  of 
Paris.  In  other  churches  of  the  latter  half  of  the  century, 
.such  as  Saint  Augustin  and  Sainte  Trinite",  Renaissance  forms 
have  reasserted  themselves,  although  rarely  without  being 
tinged  by  Byzantine  or  other  medieval  influences.  Finally 
in  the  commemorative  chapel  for  the  victims  of  the  Charity 
Bazaar  fire,  Guilbert  has  expressed  the  devotions  of  the 
fashionable  world  in  the  facile  modern  baroque. 

Domestic  architecture.  Domestic  architecture  has  also  had 
its  experiments  with  Gothic  and  other  styles,  but,  so  far  as 
urban  dwellings  are  concerned,  has  tended  to  revert  to  the 
French  urban  architecture  par  excellence,  that  of  the  eighteenth 


496        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

century,  which  still  responds  almost  completely  to  needs 
which  have  changed  but  little.  The  small  country  villa  or 
cottage,  however,  has  presented  a  problem  relatively  new  to 
the  French,  which  they  have  tried,  with  less  success,  to  solve 
by  picturesque  designs  suggested  by  English  or  Swiss  examples. 


FIG.  27O PARIS.   OPERA  HOUSE 

Other  European  countries.  Belgium.  Italy.  In  other  Euro- 
pean countries  there  are  certain  buildings  which  must  not  be 
overlooked,  the  products  of  national  movements  of  importance. 
Thus  in  Belgium  the  prosperity  experienced  under  Leopold  II. 
(1865-1909)  resulted  in  a  sumptuous  rebuilding  of  Brussels. 
The  most  notable  of  the  new  constructions  was  the  huge 
Palais  de  Justice  (1866-83),  by  Poelaert.  Here  an  eclectic 
modification  of  classic  forms  by  an  admixture  of  elements 
suggesting  the  Orient  has  produced  effects  of  the  most  monu- 
mental character  (Fig.  272).  Italy,  on  its  achieving  liberty 
and  unity  in  1861,  entered  a  period  of  development  which  had 
also  its  consequences  in  the  arts.  The  monument  to  Victor 
Emmanuel  II.  in  Rome  by  Count  Giuseppe  Sacconi,  begun  in 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

1884  and  dedicated  in  1911,  was  designed  to  symbolize  the 
triumph  of  Italian  nationality.  Rivaling  the  work  of  Poelaert 
in  vastness,  it  also  shows  his  influence  in  the  forms  of  detail, 
at  once  classic  and  novel  (Fig.  273).  The  two  buildings  are 
the  most  notable  examples  of  the  younger  phase  of  eclecticism, 
which,  not  content  to  adopt  historical  styles  in  their  integrity, 
has  wished  to  make  new  syntheses  of  historical  elements. 

Contributions  of  the  eclectic  movement  to  the  development  of 
types  of  buildings.  The  specific  contributions  of  the  eclectic 
movement  to  the  development  of  types  of  buildings  were 
necessarily  formal,  and,  to  a  large  degree,  second-hand.  Thus 
the  movement  in  general  placed  the  seal  of  its  approval  on  the 
types  already  created  by  the  classical  movement  for  govern- 
ment buildings,  banks,  exchanges,  and  theaters,  on  the  types 
created  by  the  romantic  movement  for  churches,  town  halls, 
and  rural  dwellings.  In  such  buildings  the  changes  introduced 
by  eclecticism  were  relatively  slight,  such  as  the  tingeing  of 
classicism  by  Palladian  or  baroque  forms,  or  the  replacing  of 
Gothic  forms  by  those  of  the  northern  Renaissance.  For 
certain  types,  to  be  sure,  these,  eclectic  molds  have  become 
very  firmly  established.  The  French  town  hall  has  become 
almost  uniformly  an  adaptation  of  national  Renaissance  forms 
as  found  in  the  old  Hotel  de  Ville  of  Paris.  Administrative 
buildings  for  government  departments,  which  have  multiplied 
during  the  period  all  over  the  world,  have  acquired  an  inter- 
national physiognomy  of  Renaissance  or  post-Renaissance 
motives.  Many  types  but  newly  created,  such  as  modern 
universities,  public  libraries,  baths  and  welfare  institutes, 
railway  stations  and  hotels,  received  their  first  treatment  in 
these  preferred  styles  of  eclecticism,  and  have  tended  to  retain 
the  impress.  In  one  young  and  notable  group,  the  museums 
of  history  and  art,  a  peculiar  appropriateness  has  been  felt  in 
employing  forms  characteristic  of  the  age  or  region  from  which 
objects  exhibited  come,  and  the  same  tendency  has  manifested 
itself  in  the  national  and  local  buildings  at  international 
expositions.  In  buildings,  the  exteriors  of  which  are  clothed 
in  one  or  another  garb  of  historic  form,  the  plans  often  show, 
of  course,  the  most  novel  adaptation  to  purely  modern  require- 
ments. The  striving  to  make  this  adaptation  and  to  bring  it 
to  expression  in  the  massing  and  subdivision  of  the  exteriors 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


499 


is,  however,  really  opposed  to  the  underlying  ideas  of  eclecti- 
cism and  may  best  be  considered  as  manifestations  of  the 
movement  toward  functionalism. 

Functionalism.  Fundamentally  different  in  direction  from 
the  eclectic  movement,  which  forms  part  of  the  historical 
tendency  of  modern  times,  there  has  developed  in  architecture 
another  movement,  which  is  part  of  the  tendency  toward 


FIG.    273 — ROME.      MONUMENT  TO   VICTOR   EMMANUEL    II. 


natural  science.  It  is  at  one  with  the  biological  concept  of 
the  adaptation  of  form  to  function  and  environment.  Adapta- 
tion in  both  these  respects  conforms  to  the  philosophical  con- 
cept of  function — the  dependence  of  a  variable  trait  on  other 
variables.  The  conscious  endeavors  in  modern  architecture 
to  make  the  forms  of  individual  members  correspond  to  their 
structural  duties,  to  make  the  aspect  of  buildings  characteristic 
of  their  use  and  purpose,  to  make  the  style  of  the  time  expres- 
sive of  the  distinguishing  elements  in  contemporary  and 
national  culture,  may  thus  be  inclusively  designated  by  the 
name  functionalism. 


SOD        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Early  structural  purism.  In  its  narrower  meaning,  as  a 
striving  for  truth  and  frankness  of  expression  in  structure,  the 
functionalist  tendency  has  been  present  in  many  earlier  styles, 
like  the  Greek  and  Gothic.  It  is  thus  not  incompatible  with 
the  modern  use  of  historic  forms.  Such  a  structural  purism 
indeed  has  been,  as  we  have  seen,  a  notable  characteristic  of 
French  architecture  since  the  seventeenth  century — a  rule  of 
"reason  "  and  "good  sense."  It  manifested  itself  in  the  restric- 
tion of  the  column  by  Soufflot  and  Chalgrin  to  its  original 
function  as  an  isolated  support,  in  rationalization  of  the 
Roman  triumphal  arch  at  the  Porte  Saint  Denis  and  the  Arc 
de  1'Etoile.  The  same  tendency  appeared  among  the  partisans 
of  Gothic  architecture,  who  claimed  a  superiority  for  their 
style  in  functional  expressiveness.  The  writings  of  Pugin, 
indeed,  state  the  structural  theory  in  completeness:  "There 
should  be  no  features  about  a  building  which  are  not  necessary 
for  convenience,  construction,  or  propriety,"  and  "All  orna- 
ment should  consist  of  enrichment  of  the  essential  construction 
of  the  building."  The  conclusion  drawn  by  Pugin,  however, 
was  that  Gothic  forms  should  be  employed,  and  this  was  the 
burden  also  of  the  early  rationalistic  writings  of  Viollet-le-Duc. 
Likewise  content  with  an  inspiration  from  historical  forms 
were  Gottfried  Semper  and  William  Morris,  although  their 
writings  were  contributing  powerfully  to  the  idea  of  a  purely 
modern  style  based  on  considerations  of  material  and 
technique. 

The  theories  of  environment  and  evolution.  Reaction  against 
historical  tendencies.  For  the  development  of  such  a  modern 
style  a  broader  cultural  foundation  had  gradually  been  in 
process  of  creation  since  the  later  days  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Herder  and  Madame  de  Stael  enunciated  the 
principle  of  national  individuality  and  organic  evolution  in 
literature ;  Hegel  generalized  the  doctrine  into  a  philosophy  of 
history  and  art;  Schnaase  made  concrete  application  of  it 
in  his  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kunste  (1843-64),  where  he 
traced  for  the  first  time  the  relation  of  the  art  of  different 
countries  to  environment,  race,  and  beliefs.  Taine  gave  the 
idea  its  ultimate  formulation  and  a  wide  popularity.  Parallel 
with  all  this  there  came  recognition  of  the  importance  of 
evolution  and  environment  in  the  natural  world,  culminating 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  501 

in  the  biological  theories  of  Darwin,  and  also  the  application 
of  the  principle  of  nationalities  in  political  affairs,  in  the 
unification  of  Italy  and  Germany.  The  reaction  against 
historical  tendencies  of  all  sorts  showed  itself  likewise  in 
creative  art,  in  the  radicalism  of  Nietzsche,  Zola,  Ibsen,  and 
Tolstoi  in  literature,  of  Millet,  Manet,  and  Chavannes  in 
painting,  of  Meunier  and  Rodin  in  sculpture,  and  Wagner 
in  music. 

Modern  material  civilization.     At  the  same  time  came  the 
marvelous  material  development  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
depending  on  utilitarianism  and  applied  science,  which  has 
changed   with   ever   increasing   rapidity   the   existing   social 
conditions,  the  prevailing  types  of  buildings,  the  materials, 
and  the  structural  systems.     Everything  has  contributed  to 
the  concentration  of  population  in  cities,  which,  especially 
in  America  and  in  Germany,  have  had  the  most  fabulous  and 
sudden  growth.     While  the  middle  class  has  multiplied  and 
reached  a  degree  of  comfort  hitherto  unknown,  there  has 
developed  on  the  one  hand  an  aristocracy  of  wealth  and  on  the 
other  an  organized  proletariat.     Capitalism  has  brought  with 
it  vast  factories,  stores,  and  office  buildings,  steam  transport 
has  created  railroad  and  dock  buildings,  palatial  hotels  for 
travelers,  and  great  international  expositions.     Sanitation  and 
altered  social  theories  have  revolutionized  the  building  of 
schools,  hospitals,  asylums,  and  prisons,  as  well  as  the  housing 
of    the    working    classes.     Philanthropy    has    endowed    free 
libraries,   settlements,   and  welfare   institutions  of  all  sorts. 
Economic  pressure  has  led  to  a  striving  for  the  most  efficient 
employment  of  space,   time,   and   technical  resources.     The 
generous  excess  of  strength  characteristic  of  most  earlier  styles 
has  become  often  impractical.     The  employment  of  iron  and 
steel  has  brought  new  possibilities  in  the  spanning  of  openings 
and  interior  space,  and  a  new  statical  theory,  which  has  fun- 
damentally altered  esthetic  principles  as  well.     Other   new 
materials  have  multiplied  daily,  while  cheap  transportation 
has  made  them  available  everywhere  and  tended  to  break 
down  local  peculiarities. 

Characteristics  of  functionalism  in  architecture.  Since  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  all  these  forces  have  produced 
a  body  of  architecture  which,  in  spite  of  its  variety,  has  a 


502        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

fundamental  unity  in  its  striving  for  functional  expression. 
Sometimes  the  attempt  has  been  to  give  to  new  materials  like 
steel  or  glass,  or  new  systems  of  construction  like  reinforced 
concrete,  a  form  suggested  by  their  own  properties.  Some- 
times the  effort  has  been  to  express  on  the  exterior  of  buildings 
the  function  of  each  of  their  component  elements,  and  to 
endow  each  building  as  a  whole  with  a  specific  character  in 


FIG.  274 — PARIS.      READING-ROOM  OF  THE  BIBLIOTHEQUE  NATIONALS 

conformity  with  its  purpose.  More  recently  there  has  been 
a  tendency  not  to  remain  satisfied  unless  all  the  forms  em- 
ployed, even  in  the  solution  of  time-honored  problems,  owe  as 
little  as  possible  to  the  historic  styles,  and  thus  are  peculiarly 
and  emphatically  modern. 

Development  of  functionalism.  Expression  of  structure.  At 
the  outset  of  the  development  of  functionalist  architecture  its 
principles  were  broadly  stated,  but  the  application  made  of 
them  was  relatively  limited.  With  the  conviction  that  the 
historic  styles  of  architecture  were  outgrowths  of  contemporary 
conditions  of  race,  climate,  religion,  and  society,  there  had 
arisen  a  belief  that  imitation  of  those  styles  in  modern  build- 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  503* 

ings  was  inappropriate,  and  that  a  wholly  new  style  must  be 
developed,  suggested  by  modern  conditions  and  modern 
problems.  This  was  the  later  gospel  of  Viollet-le-Duc  in  his 
Entretiens  sur  V architecture  (1863-72),  and  of  Fergusson  in 
his  History  of  Architecture  (1865-67).  The  scientific  and 
utilitarian  tendency  of  the  day,  however,  made  the  criterion 
of  style  primarily  a  matter  of  structural  system,  and  the  hope 
of  the  advocates  of  modernity  of  style  thus  lay  in  the  effort  to 
find  suitable  expression  for  new  methods  of  construction. 

Construction  in  iron.  The  novel  constructive  material  of 
the  day  was,  of  course,  iron,  whether  cast  or  wrought,  which 
had  been  coming  into  use  for  utilitarian  constructions  since 
the  early  years  of  the  century.  The  dome  of  the  Halle  au 
Ble  in  Paris  had  been  reconstructed  in  iron  in  1811,  the  Menai 
Suspension  Bridge,  with  its  unprecedented  span,  had  been 
built  in  1819-26.  Although  the  elaborate  mathematical 
calculations  of  strength  in  the  new  material  tended  to  with- 
draw such  constructions  from  the  architect's  domain,  efforts 
were  not  lacking  on  the  part  of  architects,  even  before  the 
theoretical  writings  just  mentioned,  to  employ  iron  in  a 
manner  at  once  frank  and  artistically  satisfactory.  The  most 
notable  instances  of  this  were  the  great  reading-rooms  of  the 
Library  of  Sainte  Genevieve  (1843-50)  and  of  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale  (1855-61,  Fig.  274)  where  Labrouste 
employed  iron  columns,  very  slender  and  widely  spaced,  sup- 
porting spherical  vaults  of  metal  plates.  In  these  buildings 
the  facades  were  of  masonry,  with  no  exterior  expression  of 
the  iron  work.  In  the  great  market  buildings  known  as  the 
Halles  Centrales,  by  Ballu  (1851-59),  the  exterior  also  dis- 
played its  construction  of  iron  columns  covered  with  zinc. 
It  was  arid,  yet  in  harmony  with  the  practical  character  of 
the  buildings.  Of  metal  alone,  and  only  made  possible  by 
metal,  have  been  the  more  recent  suspension,  arch,  and  canti- 
lever bridges,  with  their  enormous  spans,  as  well  as  the 
gigantic  Eiffel  Tower  in  Paris  (1889),  which,  like  many  of  the 
bridges,  combines  grace  with  absolutely  frank  confession 
of  structure. 

Glass  and  iron.  For  inclosed  buildings  wider  possibilities/ 
were  secured  by  the  use  of  glass  as  a  filling  between  the 
supports.  Structures  of  glass  and  iron  had  early  been  intro- 


504        A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

duced  for  the  cultivation  of  plants,  and  a  similar  structure  was 
suggested  by  the  horticulturist  Paxton  for  the  international 
exposition  at  London  in  1851.  There  resulted  a  sort  of  vast 
conservatory,  which  was  made  permanent  in  the  Crystal 
Palace  at  Sydenham,  1852-53,  and  was  widely  influential  in 
stimulating  construction  in  glass  and  iron  or  steel.  In  some 
later  buildings  the  roof  only  was  of  glass,  as  at  the  Palais  de 
1' Industrie  for  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1855  and  a  multitude  of 
later  museum  buildings,  consisting  in  effect  of  vast  covered 
courts.  In  other  buildings  the  roof  was  largely  solid,  the  walls 
almost  entirely  of  glass,  as  in  the  buildings  of  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion of  1878.  There  has  been  a  general  tendency,  owing  to 
excess  of  sunlight,  heat  and  cold,  to  recede  from  the  extreme 
areas  of  glass  at  first  employed,  but  in  urban  shop  fronts  where 
light  and  exhibition  space  are  naturally  the  great  desidera- 
ta, the  glass  has  been  kept  at  a  maximum.  A  notably  suc- 
cessful solution  of  such  a  problem  with  visible  structural  steel 
work  is  the  Grand  Bazar  de  la  rue  de  Rennes,  in  Paris  (Fig. 
276). 

Stone  and  iron.  Experiments  to  devise  novel  structural 
systems  with  materials  long  in  use,  or  with  a  combination  of 
old  and  new  materials,  have  also  not  been  wanting.  In  the 
Vestibule  de  Harley  (1857-68)  at  the  Palais  de  Justice  in 
Paris,  J.  L.  Due  employed  a  system  of  ribbed  stone  vaulting 
which  was  neither  Gothic  nor  classical,  but  resulted  from  an 
independent  analysis  of  his  structural  problem.  Viollet-le- 
Duc  himself  made  designs  showing  the  frank  employment  of 
iron  in  connection  with  walls  and  vaults  of  masonry  and  tile, 
which  were  a  good  deal  followed,  although  mainly  in  utilitarian 
constructions. 

Ferro-concrete.  A  further  application  of  steel  has  been  in 
connection  with  concrete.  The  employment  of  Portland 
cement  as  a  building  material,  which  rapidly  increased  in  the 
later  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  gave  to  concrete  a  much 
greater  compressive  strength.  During  the  same  time  inventors 
were  attempting  to  strengthen  the  concrete  still  further  by 
building  in  a  network  of  iron  rods.  This  composite  construc- 
tion, popularized  by  the  Frenchman  Joseph  Monier  after  1868, 
has  received  the  names  ferro-concrete,  armored  concrete,  or 
reinforced  concrete.  Its  merit  consists  in  that  it  .employs  steel 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  505 

and  concrete  in  such  a  way  that  each  material  contributes  the 
elements  of  strength  for  which  it  is  best  fitted — the  concrete, 
compressive  strength  and  indifference  to  fire,  the  steel,  tensile 
strength  and  resistance  to  shearing.  Theoretical  study  and 
practical  experience  have  kept  pace  in  the  design  and  construc- 
tion of  piers,  girders,  floor  slabs,  and  arches  of  the  new  material, 
which  combines  the  possibility  of  wide  spans  with  cheapness 
and  security.  The  method  of  execution  is  the  pouring  of  the 
freshly  mixed,  semi-liquid  concrete  in  temporary  forms  of 
wood  or  metal,  within  which  have  first  been  placed  the  rein- 
forcing bars,  in  the  position  where  tensile  or  shearing  stresses 
may  occur.  The  temporary  forms  constitute  one  of  the 
greatest  items  of  expense,  and,  since  they  cannot  be  eliminated, 
current  experiments  are  now  directed  to  the  devising  of  forms 
which  may  be  used  over  and  over.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
steel  reinforcement  of  each  member  is  already  incorporated 
in  a  protecting  mass  of  concrete,  and  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
casting  thin  walls  of  the  material,  there  is  less  temptation  with 
ferro-concrete  than  with  other  fireproof  systems  to  disguise  the 
essential  members  of  the  framework  with  enveloping  walls. 
Aside  from  this  frank  articulation  of  structure,  a  variety  of 
characteristic  decorative  treatments  has  been  devised,  such  as 
the  embedding  of  tile  patterns  in  the  surface  of  the  concrete, 
and  the  creation  of  grooves  by  blocks  nailed  inside  the  forms. 
Thus,  especially  for  utilitarian  buildings,  some  highly  interest- 
ing results  have  already  been  attained  both  in  light  and  in 
massive  construction. 

Other  materials.  Independent  of  the  novel  structural 
systems,  and  earlier  than  the  latest  developments  just 
described,  came  a  revival  of  certain  neglected  materials, 
especially  brick  and  terra  cotta.  Philip  Webb  initiated  the 
movement  by  using  brick  in  William  Morris's  "Red  House" 
at.  Bexley  Heath  (1859).  In  the  architecture  of  England  and 
America  during  the  following  period  it  has  received  a  variety 
of  interesting  treatments  through  the  use  of  different  bonds, 
the  varying  of  the  width,  depth,  and  color  of  the  mortar 
joints,  and  the  employment  of  a  variety  of  colors  and  patterns. 
Terra  cotta,  hitherto  used  mainly  for  friezes  and  ornamental 
detail,  became  available,  as  a  result  of  improved  methods  of 
manufacture,  for  whole  buildings,  the  Museum  of  Natural 


5o6        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

History  at  South  Kensington  (1868-80)  being  a  notable  early 
example.  The  possibilities  ultimately  reached — impervious 
white  structural  terra  cotta,  besides  a  wide  range  of  permanent 
colors — -with  the  advantages  of  cheapness,  resistance  to  fire, 
and  ease  of  reproducing  ornament — have  given  the  material 
an  ever  increasing  popularity.  Efforts  to  give  it  also  a 
characteristic  expression,  through  frank  recognition  of  its 
differences  from  stone  masonry,  have  produced  many  interest- 
ing results. 

Expression  oj  use  and  character.  Deeply  rooted,  like  the 
striving  for  structural  expression,  has  been  the  attempt  to 
secure  expression  for  the  use  and  character  of  buildings. 
Goethe  had  praised  the  expression  of  character  as  the  highest 
merit  in  architecture;  the  Italian  critic  Milizia,  with  Ruskin 
and  Viollet-le-Duc,  had  applied  this  principle  specifically  to 
the  expression  of  the  central  purpose  and  determining  condi- 
tions of  the  building  in  hand.  The  eclectics  already  recognized 
the  principle  in  part  when  they  chose  for  different  types  of 
buildings  the  several  historic  styles  which  seemed  most 
appropriate  to  their  general  purposes.  The  pioneers  of 
structural  functionalism  inevitably  gave  to  many  types  of 
structures,  especially  those  with  exacting  utilitarian  require- 
ments, an  impress  which  was  characteristic  of  their  uses.  The 
desire  for  expression  of  function  has  gone  much  farther,  how- 
ever, influencing  the  plan  and  massing  as  well.  It  has  become 
the  object  of  architects  not  merely  to  make  the  interior  ele- 
ments adapted  to  their  purpose  in  extent,  in  height,  and  in 
relation  to  one  another,  but  also  to  emphasize  the  existence 
of  each  of  these  elements  on  the  exterior  and  to  indicate  their 
nature  and  relationships  in  such  a  way  that  the  purpose  and 
arrangement  of  the  building  might  be  unmistakable.  For  the 
functionalist  movement  the  practical  development  and  the 
formal  development  of  types  of  buildings  have  thus  become 
logically  inseparable. 

Contributions  of  the  functionalist  movement  to  the  development 
of  types.  Theaters.  With  the  multiplication  and  specializa- 
tion of  requirements  and  types  ot  buildings,  it  becomes  im- 
possible even  to  mention  all  those  of  importance.  It  must 
suffice  to  discuss  one  or  two  which  are  representative  of  the 
transformations  which  have  taken  place  in  types  already 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  507 

existing  and  of  the  creation  of  wholly  new  ones.  The  the- 
ater is  a  type  which,  already  highly  developed  during  the 
classical  movement,  has  retained  its  *  importance  and  under- 
gone characteristic  modifications.  The  first  of  these  was  in 
external  expression.  Semper  felt  that  the  stage,  with  its 
fundamental  importance  and  immense  extent,  should  no 
longer  be  kept  under  a  single  roof  with  the  auditorium,  but 
deserved  independent  recognition,  which  the  growing  practical 
necessity  for  great  height  has  made  permanent.  In  the 
Paris  Opera  (1861-74)  Gamier  carried  still  further  the  idea 
of  characterization,  emphasizing  on  the  exterior  the  form  of 
the  auditorium  as  well,  so  that  foyer,  auditorium;  and  stage 
form  an  ascending  series,  while  the  stage  entrance,  dressing- 
rooms,  and  administrative  offices  are  all  given  a  frank  and 
suitable  expression  (Figs.  270  and  275). 

Inner  modification  of  the  theater.  The  internal  elements,  the 
auditorium  and  the  stage,  have  likewise  been  modified,  espe- 
cially in  those  theaters  unconnected  with  court  functions  and 
not  intended  for  the  production  of  operas  of  a  conventional 
sort.  Democratic  conditions  have  here  tended  to  do  away 
with  the  tiers  of  private  loges  grouped  in  a  horseshoe,  and  to 
make  the  house  more  nearly  fan-shaped,  so  as  to  give  all  as 
favorable  a  view  as  possible  of  the  stage.  A  similar  arrange- 
ment has  been  introduced,  for  somewhat  different  reasons,  in 
the  theaters  specially  built  for  performance  of  the  music- 
dramas  of  Richard  Wagner  at  Bayreuth  and  Munich.  In 
these,  as  in  an  ancient  theater,  the  seats  rise  in  a  single  slope. 
The  technical  apparatus  of  the  stage,  where  traditional  arrange- 
ments had  retained  their  hold  until  the  last  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  was  suddenly  transformed  by  the  substi- 
tution of  metal  for  wood  and  of  electric  motive  power  for 
manual  strength.  The  revolving  stage  has  made  possible  a 
hitherto  unhoped  for  rapidity  in  the  change  of  scenes,  while 
electric  lighting  has  opened  the  way  for  a  thousand  new  optical 
effects. 

Railway  stations.  Railway  stations  had  their  origin  only 
in  the  thirties;  they  at  once  assumed,  of  necessity,  the  two 
fundamental  forms  which  still  exist — terminal  stations  and 
way  stations.  For  botli,  if  they  were  of  sufficient  importance, 
a  single  train-shed  spanning  tracks  and  platforms  was  soon 


FIG.    275 — PARIS.      OPERA    HOUSE.       PLAN 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE  509 

adopted,  and,  with  the  multiplication  of  tracks  and  the 
employment  of  iron  trusses,  spans  of  over  two  hundred  feet 
were  reached  early  in  the  fifties.  The  part  of  the  station 
containing  the  waiting-rooms  and  offices  gave  opportunities 
for  monumental  treatment  which  architects  were  quick  to 
realize,  as  in  the  classic  hall  of  Euston  Station  in  London, 
built  by  Hardwick  in  1847.  In  the  Gare  de  1'Est  in  Paris 
(1847-52)  a  great  gable  containing  a  single  arched  window 
expressed  on  the  facade  the  form  of  the  train-shed  behind,  and 
a  similar  motive  received  magnificent  treatment  on  a  larger 
scale  in  the  Gare  du  Nord  (1862-64).  At  terminal  stations 
with  the  main  building  at  the  head  of  the  tracks  the  two  sides 
have  generally  been  used  in  Europe  for  arrival  and  departure, 
respectively,  with  specialized  conveniences  for  passengers  of 
a  number  of  different  classes.  In  way  stations,  and  in  terminal 
stations  where  space  has  not  permitted  the  main  building  to 
be  at  the  end,  a  depression  or  elevation  of  the  tracks  has  made 
possible  direct  access  to  all  the  platforms.  Where  steam  is  the 
motive  power  the  smokiness  of  the  inclusive  train-sheds  has 
led  increasingly  to  the  substitution  of  low  individual  "umbrella- 
sheds"  with  long  narrow  slots  close  above  the  stacks.  Where 
electric  power  has  been  adopted,  on  the  other  hand,  there  has 
been  a  reversion  to  the  more  monumental  single  hall,  as  in 
the  Gare  du  quai  d'Orsay,  Paris,  opened  in  1901  (Fig.  278). 
In  the  giving  of  expressive  form  to  such  practical  requirements, 
often  far  from  the  traditional  domain  of  architecture,  lie  a 
great  number  of  the  problems  presented  by  the  multiplicity 
of  modern  types  of  buildings. 

Expression  of  modernity  and  nationality.  Although  the 
endeavor  to  find  appropriate  expression  for  new  types  and 
new  systems  of  construction  has  inevitably  given  a  modernity 
of  character  to  much  current  architecture,  the  forms  of  detail 
in  traditional  materials  have  long  continued  to  be  drawn  from 
historical  precedent,  and  many  conventional  types  have 
retained  a  historical  imprint — whether  classical,  medieval, 
or  Renaissance.  The  broad  principle  enunciated  by  Semper, 
"The  solution  of  modern  problems  must  be  freely  developed 
from  the  premises  given  by  modernity,"  has  not  yet  been 
pushed,  any  more  than  it  was  by  its  author,  to  its  ultimate 
conclusions.  During  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


century,  however,  the  conviction  has  deepened  that,  as  Otto 
Wagner  has  expressed  it,  "Modern  art  must  yield  us  modern 
ideas,  forms  created  by  us,  which  represent  our  abilities,  our 
acts,  and  our  preferences." 

In  forms  based  on  material  and  structure.     Within  the  move- 
ment there  are  two  diverse  tendencies,  having  otherwise  little 


FIG.   278 — GARE  DU  QUAI  D'ORSAY.      INTERIOR.       (LE   GENIE  CIVIL) 

in  common.  One,  represented  by  Wagner  and  his  followers 
in  Germany,  by  Sullivan  in  America,  and  by  the  spiritual 
descendants  of  Morris  and  Viollet-le-Duc  in  England  and 
France,  holds  to  the  belief  that  "The  modern  architecture  of 
our  time  seeks  to  derive  form  and  motives  from  purpose,  con- 
struction, and  materials.  If  it  is  to  give  clear  expression  to 
our '  feelings  it  must  also  be  as  simple  as  possible.  Such 
simple  forms  are  to  be  carefully  weighed  against  one  another,  so 
as  to  secure  beautiful  proportions,  on  which  almost  solely 
the  effect  of  our  architectural  works  depends."  In  the  works 


5i2        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

of  these  men  only  the  traditional  emphasis  on  base  and 
cornice  is  retained.  The  enframement  of  windows  and  the 
demarcation  of  individual  stories  is  generally  avoided,  and 
the  forms  of  detail  at  the  bases  and  crowns  of  the  piers,  at  the 
doors  and  cornices,  are  individual  ones  suggested  by  the 
natural  properties  and  technical  treatment  of  the  materials. 

In  plastic  forms  to  which  construction  is  subservient.  The 
other  modernist  school  holds  quite  a  different  view.  Its 
fundamental  theory,  stated  by  L.  A.  Boileau  as  early  as  1889, 
is  that,  "instead  of  constructing  first,  without  preoccupation 
with  the  final  appearance,  promising  oneself  to  utilize  the 
ingeniousness  of  the  construction  as  the  decoration,  one  should 
relegate  the  ingenuities  of  structure  to  a  position  among  the 
secondary  means,  unworthy  of  appearing  in  the  completed 
work."  This  school  attributes  to  a  material  a  degree  of  artis- 
tic value  in  proportion  as  it  is  more  plastic,  more  susceptible 
of  receiving  the  impress  of  the  personal  sentiment  of  the 
artist.  To  this  branch  of  modernism  belonged  the  early 
phase  known  specifically  as  Van  nouveau,  in  which  curved 
lines  suggested  by  plant  forms  played  so  great  a  r61e.  To  it 
belong  also  the  current  works  of  Van  de  Velde  and  others, 
who  treat  their  forms  almost  like  flesh,  with  cartilage-like 
formations  at  the  points  of  junction.  These  might  be  de- 
scribed as  baroque  without  the  classical  elements.  At  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris,  although  classical  forms  are 
retained,  much  sympathy  prevails  for  the  scenic  theory  of  this 
school  of  modernists,  with  which,  indeed,  most  modern  classic 
architecture  has  really  much  in  common.  Thus  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1900  the  bizarre  masking  of  the  structural  forms, 
which  at  earlier  French  expositions  had  themselves  been  taken 
as  the  basis  for  decorative  treatment,  was  less  a  retrograde 
movement,  from  the  modernist  standpoint,  than  the  triumph 
of  a  different  phase  of  modernism. 

Besides  the  consistent  followers  of  these  two  systems  there 
is,  as  always,  a  multitude  of  practitioners  whose  convictions 
are  a  mixture  of  elements  not  wholly  concordant,  and  who 
are  united  only  in  the  rebellion  against  historical  forms. 

Development  of  modernist  forms.  The  origins.  England. 
The  forerunners  of  modern  individual  treatment  in  architect- 
ure were  the  disciples  of  Morris  in  England,  who  in  1888 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE 


instituted  the  Arts  and  Crafts  Exhibition  for  the  display  of 
works  of  handicrafts  and  interior  decoration  in  forms  created 
by  their  own  makers.  The  first  attempts  to  make  use  of 
original  forms  on  the  exterior  of  buildings  were  made  almost 
simultaneously  in  1892  and  1893  by  C.  Harrison  Townsend 
in  London,  Paul  Hankar  and  Victor  Horta  in  Brussels,  and 


FIG.   279 — BROADLEYS    ON  LAKE    WINDERMERE    (MUTHESIUS) 

Louis  Sullivan  in  Chicago.  Townsend  took  his  departure 
from  the  Romanesque  forms  of  the  American,  Richardson, 
and  transformed  them  by  novel  treatment  of  the  projections, 
by  fertile  original  ornament,  and  by  a  rich  use  of  color.  In 
England  the  new  departure  has  proved  too  radical  for  popular 
taste,  in  spite  of  the  preparation  made  by  the  craft  guilds,  and 
few  architects  have  pursued  its  ideals.  The  chief  of  them, 
C.'  F.  A.  Voysey,  however,  has  had  much  success  in  his  chosen 
field  of  the  dwelling  (Fig.  279),  in  which  he  has  adhered  most 
strictly  to  the  idea  of  economy,  yet  has  secured  interesting 
effects  by  his  employment  of  rough  cast,  woodwork  painted, 


514        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

in  broad  but  unhackneyed  colors,  and  individual  designs  for 
hangings,  furniture,  and  hardware. 

Belgium  and  France.  The  Belgians  introduced  somewhat 
fantastic  combinations  of  curved  lines,  and  experimented  at 
the  same  time  with  steel  work  in  connection  with  brick, 
concrete,  mosaic,  and  colored  glass.  They  gave  the  first 
impulse  in  both  France  and  Germany,  although  English  models 


KETTEN 
!  BRUCKENl 
;     GASSE    i 


FIG.    28O — VIENNA. 


Copyright  by  Delphin-Verlag 
STATION   OF  THE    METROPOLITAN   RAILWAY.    (LUX) 


were  followed  in  rural  domestic  architecture  and  independent 
creations  soon  outweighed  all  external  contributions.  The 
Belgian  influence  made  its  way  to  France  about  1896  under 
the  name  of  I'art  nouveau.  First  felt  in  the  minor  arts,  it 
soon  invaded  architecture  in  the  light  and  graceful  structures 
of  glass  and  steel  designed  since  1898  by  Hector  Guimard  to 
serve  as  entrances  to  the  Paris  underground — "the  Metro." 
After  the  first  enthusiasm  for  the  new  forms,  however,  few 
buildings  in  France  have  shown  so  pronounced  a  break  with 
tradition.  The  new  leaven  appears  mainly  in  a  greater 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  515 

freedom  within  the  academic  style  itself,  which  France,  with 
its  Latin  elements  and  its  faithfulness  to  classical  tradition 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  regards,  not  without  some 
reason,  as  a  national  style  of  its  own. 

Germany:  Vienna.  It  is  in  Germany  that  the  movement 
has  taken  deep  root,  so  that,  in  spite  of  its  foreign  origins,  it  is 
already  regarded  by  artists,  if  not  by  the  government,  as  an 
expression  of  the  Teutonic  spirit  in  rebellion  against  the  Latin 
domination  of  classic  architecture.  The  pioneer  has  been 
Otto  Wagner  in  Vienna,  whose  inaugural  address  as  professor 
at  the  Academy  in  1894  was  a  declaration  of  independence 
from  the  historical  styles.  His  stations  for  the  Metropolitan 
Railway  (1894-97)  were  frankly  developed  from  purpose,  en- 
vironment, and  modern  materials,  with  little  ornament,  and 
that  freely  invented  (Fig.  280).  The  formation  of  the  Viennese 
"Secession"  in  1897,  for  which  Wagner's  pupil,  Joseph 
Olbrich,  designed  an  exhibition  building  of  novel  type  and 
fresh  decorative  conception,  inaugurated  an  analogous  ten- 
dency in  painting  and  in  handicraft,  which  gave  the  archi- 
tectural movement  much  support.  Joseph  Hoffman,  another 
pupil,  founded  in  1903  the  "Viennese  Workshops"  on  the 
lines  of  Morris's  establishment,  and  has  had  wide  influence  in 
domestic  architecture  and  interior  decoration.  Although 
Wagner  achieved  in  the  Postal  Savings  Bank  (1905)  a  notable 
expression  of  steel  construction  and  marble  veneering,  official 
conservatism  has  prevented  the  execution  of  other  monumental 
projects  of  the  first  order,  and  the  buildings  in  Vienna  which 
are  most  advanced  in  functionalist  tendencies  have  hitherto 
been  due  to  private  initiative. 

North  Germany.  The  same  has  been  generally  true  in 
North  Germany,  where  the  first  striking  success  of  the  move- 
ment was  in  the  Wertheim  department  store  in  Berlin,  built 
by  Alfred  Messel  at  intervals  from  1896  to  1904  (Fig.  277). 
Although  historic  forms — at  first  baroque,  later  Gothic — here 
furnished  the  suggestions,  all  have  been  so  transformed  that 
the  impression  is  predominantly  modern.  Active  official  en- 
couragement was. first  given  the  movement  by  Grand  Duke 
Ernst  Ludwig  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  who  called  Olbrich,  Peter 
Behrens,.  and  others  to  Darmstadt,  and  gave  them  a  free  hand. 
Their  initial  exposition  of  domestic  architecture  and  handi- 


Si6        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

craft  in  i  go  i  was  the  beginning  of  a  widespread  reform  in  these 
fields,  largely  on  English  lines,  but  less  affected  by  medieval- 
ism and  saturated  with  new  decorative  conceptions.  Free 
from  historic  suggestion,  and  thus  pronounced  in  its  mo- 
dernity, is  the  expression  of  the  nature  of  the  factory  found 
in  1909  by  Behrens  in  his  turbine  factory  for  the  General 


Copyright  by  G.  M  tiller  &  E.  Rentsch 

FIG.  28l — BERLIN.      TURBINE    FACTORY  OF  THE    GENERAL    ELECTRIC    COM- 
PANY (AEG).     (HOEBER) 

Electric  Company  (AEG)  in  Berlin  (Fig.  281).  The  single 
vast  hall  has  its  great  areas  of  glass  confined  between  angular 
masses  of  concrete,  and  the  forms  of  its  trusses  and  steel 
columns  are  expressed  with  unusual  frankness  and  skill. 
With  the  great  majority  of  professional  architects  in  Germany 
now  participating  in  the  modernist  movement,  only  the  per- 
sonal intervention  of  the  Emperor  in  the  case  of  public  works 
has  prevented  it  from  prevailing  there  almost  universally. 

At  the  moment  of  cessation    of  architectural  activity  in 
Europe  due  to  the  great  war,  two  contrary  tendencies  were 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  517 

struggling  for  mastery  in  matters  of  style.  One  emphasizes 
the  elements  of  continuity  with  the  past,  the  other  the  ele- 
ments of  novelty  in  modern  civilization.  In  the  Germanic 
countries  it  is  the  radical  emphasis  on  novel  elements  which 
has  secured  the  advantage,  in  France  and  England  it  is  the 
conservative  emphasis  on  continuity  which  on  the  whole 
retains  the  supremacy.  In  view  of  the  currently  intensified 
nationalism,  it  is  natural  to  expect  that  these  national  dif- 
ferences will  be  cultivated  and  perpetuated  at  least  for  a  time. 
The  underlying  elements  of  internationalism  existing  in  the 
community  of  practical  problems,  materials,  and  structural 
systems,  and  the  essentially  international  character  of  both 
the  conservative  and  the  radical  movement,  however,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  this  particularism  will  be  relatively 
temporary.  Whether  the  present  conservative  or  the  present 
radical  tendency  may  ultimately  be  victorious,  we  may  be  sure 
that  change  in  architectural  style  is  bound  to  be  constant, 
and  that  architecture  will  remain  a  living  art,  not  less  expres- 
sive of  the  complicated  texture  of  modern  life  than  it  has  been 
of  the  life  of  earlier  and  simpler  periods. 


PERIODS  OF   MODERN   ARCHITECTURE 


FRANCE 

I.      Classicism,  c.  1780-1830. 

Jacques  Germain  Soufflot,  1709-80. 

Sainte  Genevieve  (the  Pantheon)  at  Paris,  1757-90. 
Victor  Louis,  1736-1802. 

Grand  Theatre  at  Bordeaux,  1777-80. 

Colonnades  of  the  Palais  Royal  in  Paris,  1781-86. 
Charles  Nicholas  Ledoux,  1736-1806. 

Gates  of  Paris,  1780-88. 
Pierre  Rousseau,  b.  1750,  d.  after  1791. 

H6tel  de  Salm  (Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honor)  in  Paris, 

1782-86. 
Jean  Francois  The"rese  Chalgrin,  1730-1811. 

Saint  Philippe  du  Roule  in  Paris,  1760-84. 

Arc  de  1'Etoile,  1806-36. 
Barthe'lemy  Vignon,  1762-1829. 

Madeleine  at  Paris,  1807-42. 


Si8        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Alexandra  Brongniart,  1739-1813. 

Bourse  in  Paris,  1808-27. 
Charles  Percier,   1764-1838,  and  Pierre  Fontaine,   1762- 

1853- 

Arc  du  Carrousel  in  Paris,  1806. 
Chapelle  Expiatoire  in  Paris,  1815-26. 

II.  Romanticism,  c.  1830-65. 

Chapel  of  Les  Her  biers  in  Vendee,  1825. 
Francois  Christian  Gau,  1790-1854. 

Sainte  Clotilde  in  Paris,  1846-59  (with  Theodore  Ballu, 

1817-85). 
Eugene  Emmanuel  Viollet-le-Duc,  1814-79. 

Restoration  and  fleche  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  1857^. 

III.  Eclecticism,  c.  1820-1900. 

Italian  phase. 

Old  Opera  House  in  Paris,  1820. 
Neo-grec  phase. 

Jacques  Felix  Duban,  1797-1870. 
Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts,  1832-62. 
Theodore  Labrouste,  1799-1875. 

Bibliotheque  Sainte  Genevieve  in  Paris,  1843-50. 
Joseph  Louis  Due,  1802-79. 

Completion  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  at  Paris,  1857-68. 
French  Renaissance  phase. 

Jean  Baptiste  Leseur,  1794-1883. 

Enlargement  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Paris,  1836-54. 
Baroque  phase. 

Charles  Garnier,  1825-98. 

Opera  House  in  Paris,  1861-74. 
Casino  at  Monte  Carlo. 
Paul  Ginain,  1825-98. 

Musee  Galliera  in  Paris,  1878-88. 
Charles  Girault,  1851-. 

Petit  Palais  des  Beaux -Arts  in  Paris,  1900. 
Byzantine  phase. 

Paul  Abadie,  1812-84. 

Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Paris,  i873~date. 

IV.  Functionalism,  c.  i85o-date. 

Theodore  Labrouste,  1799-1875. 

Reading-rooms  of  the    Bibliotheque  Sainte   Genevieve, 

1843-50,  and  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  1855-61. 
Joseph  Louis  Due,  1802-79. 

Vestibule  de  Harley  in  the  Palais  de  Justice  at  Paris, 
1857-68. 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE  519 

Victor  Baltard,  1805-74. 

Halles  Centrales  in  Paris,  1852-59. 
Buildings  of  the  Paris  Expositions  of  1878  and  1889. 
Alexandra  Eiffel,  1832-. 

Eiffel  Tower  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889. 
Hector  Guimard,  1867-. 

Stations  of  the  Paris  Underground  Railway  ("Metro"), 

1898  /. 
Auguste  Ferret,  1874-,  and  Gustave  Perret,  1876-. 

Theatre  des  Champs  Elysees,  1912. 


ENGLAND 

I.  Classicism,  c.  1760-1850. 

Roman  phase. 

Robert  Adam,  1728-92,  and  James  Adam,  d.  1794. 

Screen  for  the  Admiralty  in  London,  1760. 

Remodeling  of  Kedleston,  1761-65. 

Record  Office  in  Edinburgh,  1771. 

The  Adelphi  in  London,  1772. 

University  Buildings  in  Edinburgh,  1778^. 
Sir  John  Soane,  1753-1837. 

Bank  of  England  in  London,  1788-1835. 
Harvey  Lonsdale  Elmes,  1814-47. 

Saint  George's  Hall  in  Liverpool,  1814-54. 
Greek  phase. 
James  Stuart,  1713-88. 

Chapel  at  Greenwich  Hospital. 
Thomas  Harrison,  b.  1744. 

"The  Castle"  at  Chester,  1793-1820. 
Thomas  Hamilton,  1785-1858. 

High  School  at  Edinburgh,  1825-29. 
Sir  Robert  Smirke. 

British  Museum  in  London,  1825-47. 

II.  Romanticism,  c.  1760-1870. 

First  phase,  c.  1760-1830. 
Strawberry  Hill,  1753-76. 
Fonthill  Abbey,  1796-1814. 
Eaton  Hall,  1803-14. 
Second  phase,  c.  1830-70. 

Augustus  Wei  by  Pugin,  1813-52. 
18  Church  of  Saint  Augustine,  Ramsgate,  1842. 


520        A   HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Sir  Charles  Barry,  1795-1860. 

Houses  of  Parliament  in  London,  1840-60. 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  1811-78. 

Church  of  Saint  Giles  in  Camberwell,  1842-44. 
William  Butterfield,  1814-1900. 

All  Saints',  Margaret  Street,  in  London,  1849. 
George  Edmund  Street,  1824-81. 

Law  Courts  in  London,  1868-84. 
Alfred  Waterhouse,  1830-1905. 

Assize  Courts  in  Manchester,  1859-64. 

Museum  of  Natural  History  in  London,  1868-80. 

III.  Eclecticism,  c.  i83o-date. 

Italian  and  neo-grec  phase. 
Sir  Charles  Barry,  1795-1860. 

Travelers'  Club  in  London,  1829-31. 
Charles  Robert  Cockerell,  1788-1863. 

Taylor  and  Randolph  Buildings,  Oxford,  1840-45. 

Branch  Bank  of  England,  Liverpool,  1845. 
Sir  James  Pennethorne,  1801-71. 

University  of  London,  1866-70. 
Queen  Anne  phase. 

Eden  Nesfield,  1835-88. 

Lodges  at  Regent's  Park,  1864,  and  Kew,  1866. 
R.  Norman  Shaw,  1831-1912. 

New  Zealand  Chambers  in  London,  1873. 

IV.  Functionalism,  c.  1850  to  date. 

Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  1803-65. 

Crystal  Palace  in  London,  1851. 
C.  Harrison  Townsend. 

Bishopsgate  Institute  in  London,  1893-94. 

Horniman  Museum  in  London,  1900-01. 
C.  F.  A.  Voysey,  1857-. 


GERMANY 

I.      Classicism,  c.  1770-1840. 

Roman  phase,  c.  1770-90. 

Abbey  Church  at  Saint  Blasien,  1770-80. 
Deutschhauskirche  in  Nurnberg,  1785. 
Greek  phase,  c.  1790-1840. 

Karl  Gottfried  Langhans,  1733-1808. 
Brandenburg  Gate  in  Berlin,  1788-91. 


MODERN   ARCHITECTURE  521 

Friedrich  Gilly,  1771-1800. 

Proposed  memorial  for  Frederick  the  Great  in    Berlin, 

1797. 
Karl  Friedrich  Schinkel,  1781-1841. 

Royal  Theater  in  Berlin,  1818-21. 

Old  Museum  in  Berlin,  1824-28. 
Leo  von  Klenze,  1784-1864. 

Glyptothek  in  Munich,  1816-30. 

Walhalla  at  Regensburg,  1830-42. 

II.  Romanticism,  c.  1825-50. 

Karl  Friedrich  Schinkel,  1781-1841. 

Gothic  project  for  the  Cathedral  of  Berlin,  1819. 

Werderkirche  in  Berlin,  1825. 
Friedrich  von  Gartner,  1792-1847. 

III.  Eclecticism,  c.  1830-1900. 

Italian  Renaissance  phase. 
Leo  von  Klenze,  1784-1864. 

Pinakothek  in  Munich,  1826-33. 

Konigsbau  in  Munich,  1826-35. 
Friedrich  von  Gartner,  1792-1847. 

Royal  Library  in  Munich,  1832-43. 
Gottfried  Semper,  1804-79. 

Old  Court  Theater  in  Dresden,  1838-41. 
Gothic  and  northern  Renaissance  phase. 
Heinrich  von  Ferstel,  1828-83. 

Votive  Church  in  Vienna,  1853-79. 
Friedrich  von  Schmidt,  1825-91. 

Rathaus  in  Vienna,  1873-83. 
Baroque  phase. 

Gottfried  Semper,  1804-79. 

Extension  of  the  Imperial  Palace  in  Vienna,  1870  Jff. 

Court  Theater  in  Vienna,  1871-89. 
Paul  Wallot,  1841-1912. 

Reichstag  Building  in  Berlin,  1882-94. 
Ludwig  Hoffmann,  1852-. 

Imperial  Supreme  Courts  at  Leipzig,  1884-95. 

IV.  Functionalism,  c.  i8so-date. 

Otto  Wagner,  1841-. 

Stations  of  the  Stadtbahn  in  Vienna,  1894-97. 

Postal  Savings  Bank  in  Vienna,  1905. 
Alfred  Messel,  1853-1909. 

Wertheim  store  in  Berlin,  1896-1907. 


522        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Joseph  Olbrich,  1867-1908. 

Secession  gallery  in  Vienna,  1897. 

Tietz  store  in  Dusseldorf.  1906-08. 
Peter  Behrens,  1868. 

House  in  Darmstadt,  1901. 

Turbine  factory  in  Berlin,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

The  two  final  volumes  of  D.  Joseph's  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  1902, 
bear  the  title  Geschichte  der  Baukunst  des  XIX.  Jahrhunderts,  and 
constitute  the  only  historical  work  devoted  to  modern  architecture  as 
a  whole.  One  may  also  consult  the  modern  section  of  K.  O.  Hart- 
mann's  Die  Baukunst  in  ihrer  Entwicklung  .  .  .  bis  zur  Gegenwart, 
vol.  3,  1911.  Both  of  these  are  naturally  fullest  on  work  in  Germany. 
L.  Magne's  L1  architecture  franqais  du  siecle,  1889,  covers  France  to 
its  date.  For  the  development  of  special  types,  in  general,  or  in 
single  countries,  see  A.  G.  Meyer's  Eisenbauten:  ihre  Geschichte  und 
JEsthetik,  1907;  H.  Muthesius's  Das  englische  Haus,  3  vols.,  1904-05, 
and  his  Die  neuere  kirchliche  Baukunst  in  England,  1906. 

Classicism.  P.  Klopfer's  Von  Palladia  bis  Schinkel  (Geschichte  der 
neueren  Baukunst},  1911,  gives  a  general  survey  of  the  movement, 
with  accounts  of  the  development  of  individual  types  of  buildings. 
L.Hautecceur's  Rome  et  la  renaissance  de  Vantiquite  a  la  fin  du  XV I  lie 
siecle,  1912,  which  discusses  the  genesis  of  the  movement,  and  its 
beginnings  in  France,  may  be  supplemented  by  F.  Benoit's  Uart 
franqais  sous  la  revolution  et  I'empire,  1897.  A.  E.  Richardson's 
Monumental  Classic  Architecture  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  During 
the  XVIII.  and  XIX.  Centuries,  1914,  covers  the  period  in  England; 
and  P.  Mebes's  Um  1800.  Architektur  und  Handwerk  .  .  .,  2  vols., 
1908,  gives  a  partial  survey  of  the  work  in  Germany. 

Romanticism.  The  history  of  the  romantic  movement  in  archi- 
tecture has  received  special  treatment  only  in  the  case  of  England, 
in  C.  L.  Eastlake's  History  of  the  Gothic  Revival,  1972;  in  H.  Muthe- 
sius's Die  neuere  kirchliche  Baukunst,  Das  englische  Haus,  vol.  i, 
1904,  and  Die  englische  Baukunst  der  Gegenwart,  1900,  vol.  i.  The 
early  transplantation  of  the  movement  to  the  Continent  best  appears, 
although  incidentally,  in  M.  L.  Gothein's  Geschichte  der  Gartenkunst, 
1914,  vol.  2,  chap.  15.  For  its  later  progress  there  one  must  turn  to 
the  general  histories  of  Hartmann  and  Joseph. 

Eclecticism.  Two  works  devoted  to  illustrations  of  German  build- 
ings of  this  phase  are  H.  Licht's  Architektur  Deutschlands  .  .  .  der  Neu- 
zeit,  2  vols.,  1882,  and  H.  Ruckwardt's  Faqaden  und  Details  moder- 


MODERN  ARCHITECTURE  523 

tier  Bauten,  1892.  A  similar  work  for  England  is  Muthesius's  Die 
englische  Baukunst  der  Gegenwart,  2  vols.,  1800,  supplemented  by 
his  other  works  listed  above.  For  France  one  may  consult  the 
works  of  Cesar  Daly  or  R.  Selfridge's  Modern  French  Architecture, 
1899,  a  collection  of  photographs  of  buildings  from  the  period,  largely 
domestic. 

Functionalism.  The  theories  of  "character"  and  structure  de- 
veloped by  Ruskin,  Viollet-le-Duc,  and  others  are  discussed,  although 
rather  unsympathetically,  in  G.  Scott's  The  Architecture  of  Hu- 
manism, 1914.  Some  of  the  applications  made  in  practice  appear  in 
F.  Billerey's  paper,  Modern  French  Architecture,  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  1912-13,  3d  series,  vol.  20, 
pp.  317-45.  The  influence  of  iron  in  architecture  is  most  fully 
discussed  in  A.  G.  Meyer's  Eisenbauten:  ihre  Geschichte  und  JEsthetik, 
1907.  The  pioneer  works  of  "modernist"  character  in  England  and 
Belgium  are  described  in  Muthesius's  Die  englische  Baukunst  der 
Gegenwart  and  in  H.  Fierens-Gervaert's  Nouveaux  essais  sur  I'art  con- 
temporain,  1903.  The  manifesto  of  the  movement  in  Germany  was 
Otto  Wagner's  Moderne  Baukunst,  translated  by  N.  C.  Ricker,  1901. 
Its  later  development  there  may  be  traced  in  Karl  Scheffler's  Moderne 
Baukunst,  2d  ed.,  1908,  and  in  the  biographies  of  Wagner,  by  J.  A. 
Lux,  1914,  and  of  Peter  Behrens,  by  F.  Hoeber,  1913.  For  the  work 
in  America  see  the  note  to  Chapter  XIII. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 

Pre-colonial  architecture.  Yucatan.  Long  before  European 
explorers  and  colonists  crossed  the  Atlantic  there  flourished  in 
America  civilizations  which,  although  still  ignorant  of  iron 
or  even  of  bronze,  had  a  highly  developed  architecture.  The 
first,  and  in  some  respects  the  greatest,  of  these  was  that  of 
the  Maya,  whose  center  was  in  modern  Yucatan.  They 
flourished  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  and 
their  great  buildings  were  in  ruins  long  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Spanish  conquerors.  Their  colossal  structures  at  Palenque 
(Fig.  282),  Chichen  Itza,  and  elsewhere  reveal  an  ability  to 
transport  and  work  stones  of  great  size,  to  employ  the  column 
and  the  corbeled  vault,  and  to  devise  symmetrical  plans  of 
some  complexity.  Religious  structures  came  first  in  impor- 
tance; even  the  royal  palaces  were  secondary.  A  character- 
istic feature  was  the  raising  of  all  buildings  of  importance  on 
great  substructures,  often  with  sloping  faces  or  in  the  form 
of  a  stepped  pyramid.  A  broad  and  steep  staircase  on  the 
principal  face  led  to  the  upper  platform.  Here  stood  the 
building  proper,  of  massive  rubble-concrete  faced  with  stone 
(Fig.  283).  The  arrangement  of  the  plan  was  conditioned  by 
the  use  of  the  corbeled  vault  to  cover  all  interior  spaces. 
This  resulted  in  narrow  rooms  which  could  be  extended  in- 
definitely in  length,  but  which  had  to  be  multiplied  one  behind 
the  other  to  secure  greater  depth.  Openings  to  the  exterior 
or  between  the  chambers  were  spanned  with  lintels  of  wood 
or  stone,  or  by  smaller  corbeled  arches.  On  the  exterior  a 
belt  course  marked  the  line  of  the  impost  within,  and  the 
space  opposite  the  tall  vault  was  often  treated  as  a  broad 
frieze  with  relief  decoration.  A  unique  feature  was  the  "roof 
comb,"  a  long  pierced  wall  rising  along  the  center  of  the  ter- 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


525 


raced  roof.  Most  of  the  principal  buildings  were  temples, 
although  monasteries  and  palaces  on  a  large  scale  were  also 
erected. 

Mexico.     Successive  invading  tribes,  less  civilized  than  the 
Maya,  fell  heir  to  their  art,  and  diffused  their  own  versions  of 


FIG.  282 — PAI.ENQUE.     SKETCH    PLAN   OF   THE    PALACE    AND   TEMPLES. 

(HOLMES) 

it  throughout  Mexico.  The  buildings  of  the  Toltec  and  later 
the  Aztec  were  on  an  equal  scale  with  those  of  the  older  civiliza- 
tion, but  show  less  refinement  and  constructive  skill.  The 
terrace  and  pyramid  substructures,  the  relief  decoration,  the 


526 


A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


general  types  of  plan  with  long,  narrow  rooms,  were  retained. 
Often  the  building  or  rooms  were  grouped  around  quadrangles 
and  courts.  In  general  the  corbeled  vault  was  abandoned, 
and  the  terrace  roofs  of  concrete  were  supported  by  wooden 


FIG.  283 — TRANSVERSE   SECTION   OF   A   TYPICAL   MAYA    BUILDING. 

(HOLMES) 

The  upper  part  of  the  pyramid  is  shown  with  the  stairway  at  the  left.  a.  Lower  wall-zone 
pierced  by  a  plain  doorway,  b.  Doorway  showing  squared  and  dressed  stones  of  jamb. 
c.  Wooden  lintels  cut  midway  in  length,  d.  Doorway  connecting  front  with  back  chamber 
and  showing  position  of  cord  holders,  e.  Inner  face  of  arch  dressed  with  the  slope.  /.  Ceil- 
ing, or  cap-stones  of  arch.  g.  Lower  line  of  molding,  a  survival  of  the  archaic  cornice. 
h.  Decorated  entablature  zone.  i.  Upper  moldings  and  coping.  j,  k.  False  front  with 
decorations,  (occasionally  added).  /.  Roof -crest  with  decorations,  (occasionally  added). 


beams.  The  varied  character  of  the  materials  available  re- 
sulted in  many  local  differences  in  construction.  At  Mitla, 
for  instance,  large  stones  could  be  had  for  columns  and  lintels; 
in  some  other  places  stone  could  scarcely  be  found  suitable  for 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  527 

facing,  and  mud  brick  or  adobe  had  to  be  used,  decorated  with 
stucco  and  color.  These  native  developments  came  to  an  end 
with  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards  beginning  in  1 5 1 9 . 

Peru.  In  Peru  the  Spaniards,  on  their  conquest  of  the 
Inca  empire  in  1532,  found  another  well-developed  style  of 
architecture,  with  an  independent  development  of  many 
centuries.  Palaces,  fortresses,  and  cities  rivaled  one  another 
in  importance.  Polygonal  walls  of  vast  blocks,  rising  in  many 
terraces,  guarded  the  pass  of  the  Andes  at  Ollentaitambo. 
Houses  and  palaces  were  built  around  courts,  sometimes  with 
a  second  story  receding  from  the  first  and  supported  on 
corbeled  vaults.  Windows  and  niches  with  inclined  jambs 
were  notable  features. 

Colonial  architecture.  With  the  coming  of  the  European 
colonists  to  the  New  World  a  problem  new  and  unique  in 
modern  times  was  created  for  architecture;  civilized  men  had 
to  face  conditions  which  were  absolutely  primitive  and  to 
struggle  against  odds  for  the  attainment  of  traditional  ideals 
of  building.  As  a  result  there  was  everywhere  a  pioneer  stage, 
in  which  the  settlers  seized  the  first  means  at  hand — adobe, 
logs,  or  even  turf — and  built  as  simply  as  would  serve  primary 
needs  of  shelter  and  worship.  Later  they  sought  to  replace 
such  modes  of  building  by  those  of  their  mother  country,  but 
these  were  inevitably  modified  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  by 
differences  in  the  materials  available,  and  in  economic  and 
social  conditions.  The  duration  of  the  pioneer  period  itself 
varied  greatly  with  the  character  and  support  of  the  colonists, 
and  with  the  resources  and  climate  of  the  country. 

Spanish  colonial  architecture.  Development.  In  the  con- 
quered empires  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  where  wealth  and  a 
large  civilized  native  population  already  existed,  the  Spanish 
were  soon  able  to  establish  their  own  architecture,  and  even  to 
erect  monuments  rivaling  those  of  the  mother  country  in  size 
and  number.  Desire  to  implant  the  Catholic  faith  gave 
prominence  from  the  very  beginning  to  churches.  The  ear- 
liest ones,  including  doubtless  the  small  church  erected  in 
1524  on  the  foundations  of  the  great  Aztec  temple  in  Mexico 
City,  showed  reminiscences  of  the  Plateresque  and  even  of 
Gothic  and  Moorish  details.  Such  buildings  were  soon  re- 
placed by  more  elaborate  structures,  designed  either  by  the 


528        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

court  architects  in  Spain  or  by  others  of  scarcely  less  ability 
who  emigrated  to  the  New  World.  Thus,  for  the  cathedral 
of  Mexico,  two  successive  designs  were  sent  from  Spain,  in 
1573  and  1615,  the  second  by  Juan  Gomez  de  Mora  (Fig.  284). 
The  cathedral  at  Lima  (1573)  and  many  other  buildings  were 
designed  on  the  spot  by  Francisco  Becerra,  a  disciple  of 
Herrera.  The  successive  transformations  of  style  in  Spain 


FIG.    284 — MEXICO   CITY.      CATHEDRAL,    WITH    SACRISTY    (RIGHT) 


were  faithfully  reflected  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  usually  a  few 
years  later,  with  baroque  tendencies  naturally  predominating. 
In  1749,  when  Lorenzo  Rodriguez  began  the  great  sacristy  of 
the  cathedral  of  Mexico,  he  employed  a  most  luxuriant  ag- 
gregation of  baroque  details  for  the  facades  (Fig.  284).  By 
1797,  however,  when  the  towers  of  the  cathedral  were  added, 
the  academic  reaction  was  supreme ;  and  the  work  of  the  last 
of  the  great  colonial  architects,  Francisco  Eduardo  Tres- 
guerras  (1745-1833),  shows  a  handling  of  academic  elements 
reminiscent  of  that  of  Chalgrin. 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  529 

Types  of  buildings.  The  dominant  type  of  church  was  the 
basilican,  as  in  the  cathedral  of  Mexico — a  solid  rectangle  with 
a  barrel-vaulted  nave  and  transepts,  having  penetrations  at 
each  bay,  domed  compartments  in  the  aisles,  and  chapels  be- 
tween the  buttresses.  Twin  western  towers,  as  here,  were 
frequent  elsewhere,  and  a  dome  over  the  crossing  was  a 
general  feature.  Domed  churches  of  central  type  were  also 
not  wanting.  A  special  development  of  the  central  type 
occurs  in  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral  of  Mexico,  the  Sagrario 
Metropolitano.  This  consists  of  a  Greek  cross  inscribed  in  a 
square,  with  an  octagonal  dome  over  the  crossing,  barrel- 
vaulted  arms,  and  minor  domes  in  the  angles  of  the  cross. 
Secular  and  domestic  buildings  followed  those  of  the  mother 
country  in  being  composed  about  an  arcaded  court  or  patio. 

Florida.  The  outpost  of  Spain  in  North  America,  Saint 
Augustine,  founded  in  1565,  was  not  without  structures  of  some 
architectural  pretensions,  although  these  were  of  relatively 
utilitarian  character.  The  old  fort,  with  its  rusticated  bas- 
tions, and  the  molded  and  paneled  posts  of  the  city  gate  still 
stand,  as  well  as  a  simple  house  or  two  with  whitewashed 
walls  and  wooden  balconies. 

New  Mexico.  In  the  remote  interior  of  New  Mexico  archi- 
tecture was  still  more  primitive.  Here  the  native  popula- 
tion was  sparse  and  relatively  poor,  so  that  little  tempted  the 
Spaniards  to  the  region  except  missionary  zeal.  The  first 
mission  church,  at  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  was  built  in 
1598,  and  the  country  was  well  covered  by  1630.  These 
buildings  were  merely  cubical  structures  of  adobe,  or  mud 
brick,  perhaps  with  a  simple  belfry,  built  by  the  natives  under 
supervision  of  the  Franciscan  fathers.  Even  the  cathedral 
of  Saint  Francis  at  Santa  Fe"  (1713-14)  differed  from  these 
chiefly  by  its  larger  scale.  Its  doorway  and  its  twin  western 
towers  were  alike  destitute  of  classical  details,  and  ornament 
was  reserved  for  the  altar,  a  distant  reminiscence  of  the 
lavish  examples  of  Spain  and  Mexico. 

California.  In  Alta  California  colonization  was  not  at- 
tempted until  1 769,  when  Padre  Junipero  Serra  established  at 
San  Diego  the  first  of  the  series  of  missions  which  ended  in 
1823  with  San  Francisco  Solano,  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay. 
The  first  chapels  of  brush  and  the  wooden  frames  for  bells 


530        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

were  soon  replaced  by  adobe  structures  of  a  single  nave,  with 
roofs  of  poles  covered  with  clay  or  reeds.  As  the  missions 
nourished  and  the  number  of  Indian  converts  who  worked 
under  the  direction  of  the  fathers  increased,  larger  and  more 
imposing  buildings  replaced  these.  Thus  at  Santa  Barbara 
the  first  chapel,  dedicated  in  1787,  was  enlarged  in  1788,  re- 
built in  1793  and  again  in  1815-20,  when  the  present  church, 


FIG.    285 — SANTA   BARBARA.      MISSION   AND   FOUNTAIN 

the  largest  and  best  constructed  in  the  province,  was  built 
(Fig.  285).  In  it  the  baroque  survivals  which  appear  in  the 
crude  facades  of  the  earlier  churches  are  superseded  by  an 
attempt  at  classical  elegance — the  low  pediment  with  the  six 
engaged  Ionic  columns.  Single  or  twin  towers,  pierced  belfry 
walls,  as  at  San  Gabriel,  long  arcaded  corridors  or  cloisters, 
as  at  San  Juan  Capistrano,  are  characteristic  features  of  the 
California  buildings,  which  are  otherwise  dependent  for  their 
effect  on  the  broad  surfaces  and  massive  buttresses  of  their 
walls. 

French  and  Spanish  colonial  architecture  in  Canada  and 
Louisiana.  The  French  pioneers  in  North  America  were  in 
general  hunters  and  traders  rather  than  settlers,  and  they  built 
correspondingly  little.  At  Quebec,  which  was  founded  in 
1608,  a  considerable  town  gradually  developed,  however, 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


with  churches,  monastic  and  collegiate  buildings,  and  palaces 
for  the  intendant  and  the  archbishop.  These  had  for  the 
most  part  the  simple  wall  surfaces  and  detail  of  the  period 
of  Louis  XIII. ,  although  in  the  more  elaborate  interiors  there 
was  the  rich  pilaster  treatment  of  the  following  reign.  New 
Orleans  was  not  founded  until  1718.  The  typical  house 


Copyright,  American  Architect  and  Building  News  Co. 
FIG.    286 — NEW   ORLEANS.      THE   CABILDO 


there  was  one  surrounded  by  roofed  verandas  with  light  sup- 
ports, sometimes  in  a  single  story,  sometimes  in  two  stories. 
The  cession  of  Louisiana  to  Spain  in  1764,  almost  simultaneous 
with  the  loss  of  Canada  to  England,  made  the  later  architect- 
ure of  these  French  colonies  fall  under  foreign  domination. 
Thus  in  New  Orleans  after  the  great  fire  of  1788  the  buildings 
about  the  Place  d'Armes  were  rebuilt  on  a  coherent  plan,  in 
the  contemporary  style  of  Spain.  The  Cabildo  or  city  hall 
(1795,  Fig.  286)  had  two  stories  of  open  arcades,  with  the 
arch  order  and  a  pediment,  all  originally  of  quite  a  classical 
aspect. 

Dutch  colonial  architecture  in  New  Netherlands.     1624-64. 


532        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

The  Dutch,  who  founded  Albany  in  1624  and  settled  on  Man- 
hattan Island  in  1626,  naturally  tended  to  follow  the  mode  of 
building  of  their  mother  country,  still  full  of  medieval  reminis- 
cences. Although  the  majority  of  buildings  long  remained  of 
wood,  thatched  with  reeds,  a  few  houses  of  stone  were  soon 
built,  and  later  bricks  were  frequently  used.  In  these  ma- 
sonry structures  the  stepped  gable  toward  the  street,  so  com- 
mon in  Holland,  was  adopted,  as  well  as  the  tile  roof.  The 
most  conspicuous  building,  the  "Stadt-Huis" — erected  for  the 
city  tavern  in  1642  and  converted  into  a  city  hall  in  1653 — 
conformed  to  this  type.  It  had  vertical  banks  of  small 
segmental-headed  windows  in  pairs,  and  a  simple  open 
cupola  to  contain  the  bell.  Although  architecture  had  thus 
made  little  progress  before  the  English  conquest  of  1664,  there 
were  the  seeds  of  an  independent  growth  which  developed 
later  under  English  rule. 

Architecture  in  the  English  colonies.  Seventeenth  century. 
The  English  colonies  in  America  were  at  first  widely  separated, 
as  well  as  very  different  in  their  character  and  purposes,  so 
that  there  was  much  diversity  of  architecture  even  in  those 
where  the  settlers  were  mainly  of  English  birth.  Certain 
general  characteristics  hold  for  all,  however,  among  them  the 
essentially  medieval  nature  of  all  the  buildings  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  This  could  scarcely  have  been  otherwise, 
in  view  of  the  fundamental  medievalism  of  most  building  in 
England  during  the  century,  outside  of  London  and  of  court 
circles.  England  had  been  the  last  country  to  adopt  Renais- 
sance forms  of  detail,  and  was  much  later  still  in  adopting 
classical  types  of  plan  and  mass.  Throughout  the  seventeenth 
century  in  England  the  country  churches  built  were  Gothic, 
and  the  rural  cottages  and  minor  country  seats  were  medieval 
in  all  but  a  few  applied  details  and  a  tendency  to  symmetry. 
Even  in  London,  we  may  recall,  the  first  classical  church  was 
not  built  until  1630,  and  it  had  no  imitators  until  after  1666. 
Small  wonder,  then,  if  the  colonists,  themselves  largely  from 
the  rural  districts,  erected  buildings  which,  stripped  of  almost 
every  detail  not  structurally  indispensable,  revealed  their 
basic  medievalism.  A  corollary  of  this,  and  of  the  relatively 
primitive  state  of  society,  was  the  general  absence  of  profes- 
sional architects  and  the  dependence  of  the  craftsmen  builders 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  533 

on  tradition  in  matters  of  style  and  workmanship.  Another 
general  trait  in  the  seventeenth  century  was  the  almost  uni- 
versal prevalence  of  wood  as  a  building  material,  even  in 
regions  where  the  later  monuments  which  are  preserved  are 
of  masonry.  In  contrast  with  England  the  new  continent  was 
densely  forested,  so  that  in  clearing  land  for  cultivation  timber 
was  felled  ready  to  hand.  The  immediate  introduction  of  saw- 
mills in  populous  centers  made  plank  still  less  expensive  than 
otherwise,  so  that  for  years,  and  even  to  this  day,  brick  and 
stone  have  stood  at  a  disadvantage  in  cost  far  greater  than 
anywhere  in  Europe. 

Virginia  and  the  South.  Virginia  had  at  the  start  the  back- 
ing of  a  powerful  trading  company  and  the  advantage  of  a 
unique  staple  crop,  tobacco,  which  soon  became  enormously 
valuable  for  export.  With  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in 
England,  the  colony,  with  Maryland,  became  a  refuge  for  the 
royalists,  many  of  them  possessing  some  means.  Neverthe- 
less architectural  progress  was  very  slow.  From  the  founding 
of  Jamestown  in  1607  the  home  authorities  made  constant 
efforts  to  establish  towns  and  require  buildings  of  brick. 
The  absolute  necessity  of  a  plantation  system,  however, 
forced  the  inhabitants  to  scatter  along  the  navigable  rivers 
and  made  mechanics  of  any  kind  scarce.  Framed  houses 
only  began  about  1620  and  were  still  uncommon  in  1 63  2 .  Clay 
and  some  brick  makers  there  were,  yet  the  first  house  wholly 
of  brick  does  not  seem  to  have  been  built  until  1638.  The 
typical  Virginia  house  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  a 
rectangular  framed  building  of  very  moderate  size,  devoid  of 
any  architectural  ornaments,  and  with  a  great  chimney  of 
brick  at  each  end.  The  buttress-like  form  of  these  chimneys, 
with  the  steepness  of  the  roof,  proclaimed  the  medieval  basis 
of  the  design.  This  is  even  more  pronounced  in  the  oldest  of 
the  Virginia  churches  still  remaining,  Saint  Luke's,  Smithfield, 
which  includes  some  bricks  of  1631,  although  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful if  the  whole  fabric  was  built  so  early.  With  its  pointed 
and  mullioned  windows  this  is  unmistakably  an  English  parish 
church  of  the  outgoing  Gothic,  in  spite  of  the  quoins  of  its 
tower.  In  Maryland  and  Carolina  the  same  general  history 
was  later  repeated,  bricks  of  local  manufacture  being  gradu- 
ally adopted  by  the  wealthier  planters.  Although  Carolina 


534        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

was  not  settled  until  after  1660,  and  large  houses  were  not 
built  until  near  1700,  one  or  two  of  them  still  show  the  fan- 
tastic curved  gables  of  the  Jacobean  manors. 

New  England.  In  New  England  buildings  entirely  of  brick 
and  stone  were  especially  rare,  but  permanent  framed  build- 
ings of  wood  were  erected  almost  immediately  after  the  found- 
ing of  Plymouth  (1620),  Boston  (1630),  and  Hartford  (1636), 
with  no  long  period  of  makeshifts.  The  earliest  settlers  in- 
cluded carpenters,  and,  under  the  conditions  of  town  life 
which  prevailed,  artisans  were  numerous  throughout  the 
colonial  period.  They  brought  with  them  the  medieval  Eng- 
lish traditions  of  framing  houses  with  overhanging  upper 
stories,  and  of  filling  up  the  frame,  where  possible,  with  brick. 
The  changeable  climate  did  not  favor  the  exposure  of  such 
half -timber  work  to  the  weather,  and  from  the  start,  in  most 
instances  at  least,  the  exteriors  were  covered  with  clap- 
boards. The  windows  were  small  leaded  casements,  essen- 
tially medieval,  as  were  the  clustered  form  of  the  chimneys 
and  the  ornamental  drops  at  the  corners  of  the  overhangs. 
Several  different  types  of  plan  may  be  distinguished,  each 
characteristic  of  certain  localities.  In  Massachusetts  Bay  and 
the  Connecticut  colony  the  usual  type  was  one  having  two 
rooms  upstairs  and  down,  with  an  entry  and  a  great  chimney 
between,  and  often  with  a  lean-to  added  at  the  back.  Later 
the  lean-to  was  included  from  the  start,  as  in  the  Whipple 
house  at  Ipswich,  Massachusetts  (Fig.  287),  well  preserved 
and  restored.  The  typical  house  in  Providence  Plantation 
was  one  of  a  single  room  below,  with  a  great  chimney  at  one 
end,  creating  the  "stone-end  house."  Occasionally,  as  in  the 
Theophilus  Eaton  house  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  the 
Elizabethan  U  or  H  plan,  with  a  central  "hall,"  was  pre- 
served. In  interiors  the  cavernous  fireplaces,  the  wainscot 
sheathing,  and  the  occasional  paneling  were  devoid  of  any 
Renaissance  detail.  Toward  1700  the  framed  overhang  was 
abandoned,  but  medieval  details  and  methods  lingered  well 
into  the  eighteenth  century.  The  churches  or  "meeting- 
houses" in  New  England  likewise  retained  survivals  of 
medieval  forms,  but  their  disposition  was  fundamentally 
affected  by  the  extreme  Protestantism  of  the  settlers  there. 
After  the  passing  of  the  earliest  simple  cabins  they  tended 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


535 


to  conform  to  the  prevailing  Protestant  type  of  England  and 
the  Continent — a  squarish,  hall-like  room,  with  galleries 
around  three  sides  and  the  pulpit  against  the  fourth,  which 
was  generally  one  of  the  longer  sides.  There  was  no  tower; 
the  belfry  was  merely  placed  astride  the  ridge  at  one  end  or 


Courtesy  of  the  White  Pine  Bureau 
FIG.   287 — IPSWICH.      WHIPPLE   HOUSE 


on  a  deck  in  the  center  when  the  roof  was  hipped,  as  in  the 
"Old  Ship"  Meeting  House  at  Hingham,  Massachusetts. 

Pennsylvania.  Philadelphia  was  not  founded  until  1682,  so 
that  colonial  architecture  in  Pennsylvania  has  mostly  the  post- 
Renaissance  detail  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Before  leaving 
the  medieval  survivals,  however,  one  must  consider  the  build- 
ings of  the  German  sects  of  Pennsylvania,  although  the  earliest 
of  any  pretensions  were  not  built  until  well  after  1700,  and 
others  not  until  about  1750.  The  monastic  halls  of  religious 
communities  like  that  at  Ephrata,  with  their  whitewashed 
walls  and  small  windows,  their  steep  roofs  and  ranges  of  little 


536        A  HISTORY  OF    ARCHITECTURE 

dormers,  are  unmistakable  offshoots  of  the  Middle  Ages  in 
Germany. 

Eighteenth-century  colonial  architecture.  With  the  eigh- 
teenth century  came  greater  means  and  comfort,  wider  use  of 
permanent  materials,  and  the  adoption  of  classical  forms  of 
detail.  The  whole  seaboard  was  now  under  English  rule,  and 
local  diversity  was  subject  to  uniform  English  influence.  By 
this  time  in  England  the  style  of  Jones  and  Wren  was  every- 
where established,  and  the  small  provincial  towns  abounded 
with  doorways  and  interior  woodwork  in  which  the  favorite 
post-Renaissance  motives  of  broken  pediments,  consoles,  and 
rich  carving  were  conspicuous.  Still  more  important  for  the 
colonies  was  the  codification  of  current  architecture  in  books, 
great  and  small,  which  reproduced  both  formulas  for  the  orders 
and  other  details  and  designs  for  whole  buildings.  These 
were  imported  very  freely  and  will  be  found  to  have  had  the 
greatest  influence  on  single  buildings  and  on  the  prevailing 
style.  In  the  early  part  of  the  century  the  colonists  merely 
adopted  classical  details  for  the  individual  features  of  their 
buildings — the  cornice,  the  doorway,  and  perhaps  a  cupola — 
without  any  general  classical  treatment  beyond  a  symmetrical 
arrangement.  Later  the  churches  and  public  buildings,  and 
finally  even  the  dwellings,  began  to  assume  a  monumental 
character.  During  the  later  years  of  the  colonial  regime 
there  also  appeared  some  tendency  toward  the  Palladian 
strictness  which  had  carried  the  day  in  England,  and  had 
dominated  the  later  architectural  publications.  In  these 
movements,  as  was  also  the  case  in  England,  cultivated  ama- 
teurs played  the  leading  r61e,  although  the  builders  them- 
selves were  quick  to  master  the  teaching  of  the  books  and  to 
assume  also  the  functions  of  architects. 

Houses.  The  first  signs  of  the  transition  at  the  opening  of 
the  eighteenth  century  were  the  adoption  of  less  steep  roofs, 
the  substitution  of  sash  windows  for  the  leaded  casements, 
and  the  tendency  to  employ  a  uniform  cornice  with  a  hip  roof, 
or  a  pedimented  gable  instead  of  a  gable  of  medieval  type. 
When  cornice  and  door  were  given  rich  detail — of  modillions 
and  of  pilasters  with  a  pediment — one  had  the  scheme  ex- 
emplified about  1730  in  Westover,  Virginia  (Fig.  288),  and  in 
the  finest  houses  of  that  day  throughout  the  colonies.  The 


AMERICAN   ARCHITECTURE 


537 


ample  and  symmetrical  dependencies  seen  at  Westover  were 
characteristic  of  Virginia  and  of  Maryland  and  were  sometimes 
seen  at  Philadelphia.  Frequent  use  of  the  curved  and  the 
broken  pediment  and  of  rusticated  enframements  shows  that 
the  baroque  element  of  Wren's  work  was  still  current.  In  a 
few  instances,  beginning  about  1735,  tall  pilasters  were  applied 


FIG.    288 — WESTOVER,    VIRGINIA 


to  the  corner  of  the  house.  As  these  were  only  associated 
with  an  individual  pedestal  and  a  fragment  of  entablature, 
however,  they  create  no  general  architectonic  treatment.  The 
earliest  important  house  in  which  a  more  academic  scheme  was 
attempted  was  Mount  Airy  in  Virginia  (1758),  where  two 
loggias — one  arched,  the  other  colonnaded — were  the  a^ial 
features  of  a  group  with  balanced  outbuildings,  taken 
apparently  from  James  Gibbs's  published  designs.  It  was  not 
until  1760  or  later  that  the  free-standing  portico  with  a 
pediment  was  applied  to  dwellings,  and  this  did  not  become  at 
all  common  until  after  the  Revolution.  In  a  few  instances, 


538         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

notably  the  Miles  Brewton  house  in  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina (c.  1765),  there  were  superposed  porticoes  on  the  general 
scheme  of  many  of  Palladio's  villa  designs,  although  with 
much  freedom  in  proportions  and  detail.  Strict  following  of 
Palladian  canons  in  residence  work  only  began  with  Thomas 
Jefferson's  design  for  Monticello  in  1771,  on  the  very  eve  of 
the  .Revolution.  The  interior  of  houses,  owing  partly  to 
the  prevalence  of  wooden  paneling,  was  much  richer  and  often 
more  coherent  in  architectural  treatment  than  the  exterior. 
The  subdivision  of  walls  by  pilasters  was  by  no  means  un- 
common, although  more  often,  as  in  the  Brewton  house,  each 
essential  element,  such  as  a  doorway  or  chimneypiece,  was 
elaborated  individually.  Baroque  features  persisted  even 
after  they  had  vanished  from  the  exterior. 

Churches.  The  buildings  in  which  the  more  advanced 
tendencies  were  first  manifested  were  the  churches.  Old 
Saint  Philip's,  Charleston,  consecrated  in  1723,  had  a  portico 
of  four  columns  in  front  of  its  tower,  only  a  few  years  after  the 
great  London  churches  with  a  similar  general  parti.  The 
nave  of  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  built  1731-44  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  John  Kearsley,  has  an  architectonic  treatment 
of  the  Roman  arch  order  with  pilasters  in  two  stories.  Both 
of  these  buildings  had  the  basilican  interior  treatment  of 
Saint  Bride's  and  other  London  churches,  which  became  the 
favorite  system  for  the  more  elaborate  colonial  examples. 
The  exterior  portico,  which  in  Saint  Philip's  had  only  the  width 
of  the  tower,  was  enlarged  in  Saint  Michael's,  Charleston 
(1752-61),  and  in  Saint  Paul's  Chapel,  New  York  (1764-66, 
Fig.  289),  to  embrace  almost  the  full  width  of  the  church. 
The  steeples  followed  English  examples,  among  which  that  of 
Saint  Martin-in-the-Fields'  and  other  designs  reproduced  in 
Gibbs's  published  works  attracted  the  most  imitators. 

Public  buildings.  The  earliest  public  buildings  of  any  pre- 
tensions, such  as  the  older  New  York  City  Hall  (c.  1700)  and 
the  old  Virginia  Capitol  at  Williamsburg  (1702-04),  still  be- 
trayed a  lingering  medievalism  in  their  H  plans,  in  spite  of  the 
round  arches  or  the  columns  of  the  connecting  loggias.  Even 
in  buildings  where  all  medieval  character  has  vanished,  like 
the  old  State  House  (Independence  Hall)  in  Philadelphia 
(1732-52),  the  architectural  character  remains  fundamentally- 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


539 


domestic,  and  the  public  functions  are  suggested  on  the 
exterior  only  by  the  greater  size  of  the  building  and  its  posses- 
sion of  a  cupola.  In  the  interior  of  Independence  Hall,  indeed, 
there  is  a  monumental  treatment  by  an  arch  order  with 
engaged  columns,  which  was  almost  unique  in  the  colonial 


FIG.   289 — NEW   YORK.       SAINT   PAUL'S   CHAPEL 


period.  The  first  attempt  at  academic  design  was  Faneuil 
Hall  in  Boston  (1742),  by  the  painter  Smibert,  with  the  arch 
order  in  two  stories,  the  lower  one  forming  an  open  market. 
A  series  of  buildings  of  unique  architectonic  character  was 
designed  by  Peter  Harrison  of  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  who, 
whether  or  not  he  had  professional  training  in  England, 


540        A  HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

deserves  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  professional  architect 
in  North  America.  His  Redwood  Library  in  Newport  (1748- 
50)  has  a  Roman  Doric  portico  of  four  columns,  united  to  the 
body  of  the  building  by  a  single  unbroken  entablature  (Fig. 
290).  Originally  only  the  small  wings  flanking  the  fagade 
prevented  the  building  from  conforming  entirely  to  the  temple 


FIG.    290 — NEWPORT.      REDWOOD  LIBRARY 

type,  already  imitated  in  the  garden  temples  in  England. 
The  Market  at  Newport,  1761,  represents  a  more  advanced 
academic  phase  than  Faneuil  Hall,  in  that  it  involves  an 
engaged  order  running  through  two  stories,  over  an  arched 
basement.  This  was  the  characteristic  motive  of  the  more 
ambitious  buildings  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution,  such  as  the 
Pennsylvania  Hospital,  the  Exchange  in  Charleston,  and 
others.  The  greater  number  even  of  public  buildings,  how- 
ever, still  retained  not  only  the  modest  materials,  brick  and 
wood,  but  also  the  simple  wall  surfaces  and  isolated  details 
of  the  early  part  of  the  century. 

Architecture  of  the  national  period.  Its  origins.  During  the 
Revolution  (1775-83)  building  was  almost  completely  sus- 
pended. At  its  close,  although  some  craftsmen  continued 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  541 

their  work  in  the  same  style  as  before,  the  leaders  were  inspired 
by  very  different  ideals.  They  recognized  that  the  colonial 
style,  whatever  its  merits,  was  provincial,  and  they  sought  to 
establish  an  architecture  worthy  of  the  new,  sovereign, 
republican  States  and  of  the  great  nation  soon  welded  from 
them.  In  all  types  of  buildings  connected  with  political  and 
social  institutions,  moreover,  the  republican  and  humani- 
tarian ideals  of  America  demanded  solutions  very  different 


FIG.    291 — RICHMOND.       VIRGINIA   CAPITOL.      ORIGINAL    MODEL 

from  those  which  were  traditional  in  Europe.  For  govern- 
ment buildings,  prisons,  asylums,  and  other  types  new  dis- 
positions had  to  be  found.  The  pioneer  in  both  these 
movements  was  Thomas  Jefferson,  whose  political  career  gave 
him  an  unexampled  opportunity  for  the  realization  of  his 
architectural  conceptions.  He  felt  that  even  the  forms  of 
detail  should  not  be  borrowed  from  contemporary  European 
styles,  although  they  should  command  the  respect  of  foreign 
observers.  In  this  situation  he  turned  to  what  he  felt  to  be 
the  unimpeachable  authority  of  the  ancients,  in  whose  republics 
the  new  States  were  felt  to  have  their  closest  analogy.  In  his 
design  for  the  Capitol  of  Virginia  at  Richmond  (1785,  Fig. 


542        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

291),  the  first  of  modern  republican  government  buildings, 
he  boldly  took  as  his  model  the  Maison  Carree  at  Nimes.  The 
Ionic  order  was  substituted  to  save  expense,  windows  were 
necessarily  pierced  in  the  cella  walls,  and  the  interior  was 
subdivided  in  conformity  with  the  balance  of  legislative  and 
judicial  functions,  if  not  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  ex- 
pression of  the  exterior.  It  is  little  realized  that  this  design 
considerably  antedated  anything  similar  abroad.  Classical 
examples  had  indeed  been  imitated  in  garden  temples  and 
commemorative  monuments,  but  never  on  such  a  large  scale 
and  never  in  a  building  intended  for  practical  use.  Even 
Gilly's  proposed  temple  to  Frederick  the  Great  (1791)  and 
Vignon's  Napoleonic  Temple  of  Glory  (1807)  were  monuments 
simply,  and  not  until  the  Birmingham  Town  Hall  (1831)  was 
there  anything  in  Europe  really  analogous  to  this  first  monu- 
ment of  American  national  architecture. 

Academicism  and  classicism.  Public  buildings.  The  seed 
of  a  literal  classic  revival  thus  implanted  required  time  to  bear 
its  fruit.  Meanwhile  many  buildings  of  less  advanced 
character  evidenced  none  the  less  the  change  from  colonial 
ideas.  Engineers,  builders,  and  amateurs,  both  of  native  and 
of  foreign  birth,  united  to  infuse  them  with  largeness  of  scale 
and  academic  character.  James  Hoban  of  Dublin,  in  his 
South  Carolina  Capitol  at  Columbia  (1786-91),  and  L'Enfant, 
the  French  military  engineer,  in  his  remodeling  of  Federal 
Hall  in  New  York,  the  first  Capitol  of  the  United  States  (1789), 
both  employed  the  favorite  academic  formula  of  a  columnar 
central  pavilion  over  a  high  basement.  William  Thornton's 
Philadelphia  Library  (1789),  and  Samuel  Blodget's  marble 
facade  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  (Girard's  Bank)  in 
Philadelphia  (1795),  had  similar  frontispieces  rising  the  full 
height  of  the  building.  The  competitive  drawings  for  the 
Capitol  at  Washington  (1792-93)  showed  a  determined  effort 
to  secure  a  monumental  result.  The  design  of  Thornton, 
which  received  first  prize,  was  based  on  the  great  Palladian 
layouts  of  England.  More  advanced  still  were  the  competitive 
designs  of  Stephen  Hallet,  a  French  architect  of  the  highest 
professional  training,  who  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  work. 
In  his  first  study  he  had  adopted  the  scheme,  since  so  popular 
in  legislative  buildings,  of  a  tall  central  dome  with  balancing 


FIG.    292 — BOSTON.        STATE   HOUSE 


544        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

wings,  similar  in  form  to  the  College  des  Quatre  Nations  in 
Paris.  Various  later  studies,  under  Jefferson's  influence,  were 
based  on  the  peristylar  temple,  the  Pantheon  in  Paris,  and  the 
motive  of  the  Pantheon  in  Rome,  which  remained  the  accepted 
central  feature.  In  these  studies,  also,  Hallet  anticipated  the 
foreign  instances  of  legislative  halls  of  semicircular  form. 
Charles  Bulfinch  showed  both  the  classical  and  the  academic 
influences,  in  the  Beacon  column  in  Boston  (1789),  based  on 


Copyright  by  the  American  Architect  and  Building  News  Co. 
FIG.    293 — NEW   YORK.      CITY   HALL 

Roman  examples,  and  in  the  Massachusetts  State  House 
( 1 795-98),  with  its  tall  dome  and  its  colonnade  above  an  arched 
basement  (Fig.  292).  Pure  French  academism  of  the  mid- 
eighteenth  century  appears  in  the  New  York  City  Hall 
(1803-12,  Fig.  293),  designed  by  the  French  engineer,  Joseph 
Mangin,  in  partnership  with  John  McComb.  Here  for  the 
first  time  in  America  appears  an  academic  facade  with  angle 
pavilions,  with  a  sophisticated  wall  treatment  of  superposed 
orders,  of  archivolts  and  rustication.  The  complete  victory 
of  classicism,  even  in  its  Roman  phase,  did  not  ensue  until 
after  1815.  It  was  Jefferson,  the  initiator  of  the  movement, 
who  crowned  its  triumph  with  the  design  of  the  University 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


545 


of  Virginia  group.  Here  long  colonnades  connecting  classical 
pavilions  of  varied  design  lead  up  to  the  central  Rotunda  or 
library,  based  on  the  Roman  Pantheon. 

The  Greek  revival.  Latrobe.  Long  before  classicism  had 
carried  the  day  the  Roman  revival  had  been  reinforced  by  a 
Greek  revival.  The  introduction  of  Greek  forms,  already  used 
in  England  and  Germany,  was  due  to  Benjamin  Henry  Latrobe, 


FIG.  294 — PHILADELPHIA.      BANK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  (CUSTOM    HOUSE) 


an  architect  who  had  the  professional  training  of  both  these 
countries.  He  came  to  America  in  1796,  and  in  his  first 
monumental  work,  the  Bank  of  Pennsylvania,  1799,  employed 
a  Greek  Ionic  order  in  two  hexastyle  porticoes  which  gave 
access  to  the  domed  banking-room.  In  the  conduct  of  the 
work  on  the  national  Capitol,  with  which  he  was  charged  from 
1803-17,  his  principal  opportunities  lay  in  the  interior,  where 
he  created  the  great  semicircular  Hall  of  Representatives 
(now  Statuary  Hall),  with  its  Corinthian  colonnade  employing 


546        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Greek  capitals  of  the  Lysicrates  type.  His  last  design  was 
for  the  second  Bank  of  the  United  States  in  Philadelphia 
(1819-24),  in  which — encouraged  doubtless  by  the  philhellene 
Nicholas  Biddle,  later  its  president — he  adopted  the  octastyle 
Doric  form  of  the  Parthenon  itself  (Fig.  294).  The  need  for 
additional  space  in  the  interior,  indeed,  led  to  the  suppression 
of  the  side  colonnades,  but  even  then  the  building  approached 
the  ultimate  Athenian  ideal  more  nearly  than  any  modern 
building  which  had  so  far  been  erected  in  Europe. 

The  later  classicists.  Hellenic  influence  dominated  American 
architecture  until  nearly  1850.  A  pupil  of  Latrobe,  Robert 
Mills,  rivaled  his  master  in  advanced  classicism  by  employing 
a  Greek  Doric  column,  nearly  a  hundred  feet  in  height,  as  the 
motive  of  his  Washington  Monument  in  Baltimore  (1815), 
and  an  obelisk  of  five  hundred  feet  in  the  Washington  Monu- 
ment in  Washington  (1836^.).  The  temple  form  was  followed 
in  a  series  of  State  capitols,  and  notably  in  the  one-time 
Custom  House  of  New  York  (1834-41),  now  the  Sub-Treasury 
— another  and  more  literal  version  of  the-  Parthenon.  The 
latest  and  richest  example  was  the  main  building  of  Girard 
College  in  Philadelphia  (1833-47),  for  which  Nicholas  Biddle 
forced  the  adoption  of  the  temple  form,  carried  out  with 
the  Corinthian  order  of  the  Lysicrates  type  by  Thomas  U. 
Walter.  For  State  capitols,  however,  the  type  having  a 
dome  and  wings,  with  the  prestige  given  it  by  the  completion 
of  the  national  Capitol  (1829),  found  thenceforth  more 
adherents.  Another  favorite  motive  was  the  long  unbroken 
colonnade,  as  used  in  the  original  (Fifteenth  Street)  facade  of 
the  Treasury  in  Washington  by  Robert  Mills  (1836-39),  and 
in  the  Merchants'  Exchange  in  New  York  (now  forming  the 
lower  story  of  the  National  City  Bank),  by  Isaiah  Rogers 
(1835-41).  A  novelty  was  the  great  semicircular  portico  of 
the  Merchants'  Exchange  in  Philadelphia,  by  William  Strick- 
land. When  the  Capitol  at  Washington  was  enlarged  to  its 
present  form  (Fig.  295)  by  Walter  in  1851-65,  he  had  naturally 
to  follow  the  academic-Roman  ordonnance  of  the  exterior, 
and  thus  helped  to  give  the  later  buildings  of  the  classical 
movement  a  less  Hellenic  stamp.  By  all  these  designs,  the 
States  and  the  nation  were  endowed  with  a  tradition  of 
monumental  and  dignified  government  architecture  which  has 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


547 


been  continued  with  but  slight  interruptions  to  the  present 
day. 

Domestic  architecture.  In  domestic  architecture  after  the 
Revolution  the  colonial  style  was  resumed  by  the  craftsmen 
with  little  change,  so  that  a  large  group  of  buildings  may  well 
be  described  as  "post-colonial."  An  early  example  is  the 
Fierce-Nichols  house  in  Salem  (c.  1790),  by  Samuel  Mclntire. 


Copyright  by  the  American  Architect  and  Building  News  Co. 
FIG.    295 — WASHINGTON.      UNITED   STATES   CAPITOL 


The  facade  differs  little  from  that  of  the  Royall  house  in 
Medford,  built  fifty  years  earlier,  except  in  the  substitution  of 
a  heavy  Doric  order  in  the  corner  pilasters  and  in  the  bolder 
treatment  of  the  doorway  (Fig.  296).  Classical  influence  soon 
showed  itself  in  two  quite  different  ways.  One,  which  still 
involved  no  break  with  the  past,  was  the  employment  of  Adam 
forms  of  detail,  both  in  exteriors  and  interiors.  Thus  were 
developed  the  attenuation  of  proportions  and  the  delicacy  of 
ornament  so  characteristic  of  the  later  work  of  Mclntire  in 
Salem,  typical  of  New  England  in  the  early  nineteenth 
century,  and  occasionally  seen  elsewhere.  The  appropriate- 
ness of  these  forms  to  execution  in  the  prevailing  material, 
wood,  lent  them  a  special  attraction.  The  other  classical 


548        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

tendency,  which  dominated  the  States  farther  south,  was  quite 
different  in  its  inspiration  and  direction.  It  took  its  departure 
from  Palladianism  and  from  French  models,  and  ultimately 
sought  to  assimilate  the  house  also  to  the  ideal  form  of  the 
temple.  From  the  start  the  portico  or  frontispiece  of  tall 
columns  was  common,  a  prominent  example  being  the  White 


FIG.    296 — SALEM.       FIERCE-NICHOLS   HOUSE 


House  in  Washington  (1792^.,  Fig.  297).  The  tall  portico 
became  especially  popular  in  Virginia  and  the  South  through 
Jefferson's  numerous  designs,  in  which  he  sought,  where 
possible,  to  give  the  effect  of  a  single  story,  as  in  the  French 
houses  of  supposedly  Roman  cast.  In  remodeling  his  own 
house,  Monti  cello  (1796-1809),  he  introduced  a  dome  over  the 
projecting  salon,  to  secure  a  still  further  resemblance  to  such 
buildings  as  the  H6tel  de  Salm  in  Paris.  The  professors' 
houses  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  which  he  designed  as 
"specimens  for  the  architectural  lecturer,"  included  imitations 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


549 


of  -the  prostyle  temple,  and  these  were  widely  copied  where 
there  were  no  didactic  motives.  Nicholas  Biddle,  with  his 
customary  enthusiasm  for  things  Greek,  adopted  a  model  of 
the  Theseum,  peristyle  and  all,  for  his  country  seat  "Anda- 
lusia" on  the  Delaware.  Even  in  New  England  the  prostyle 
temple  with  Greek  forms  finally  carried  the  day,  while  in  the 
South  the  peristyle,  with  its  manifest  suitability  to  the  climate, 
was  widely  adopted.  Such  magnificent  specimens  as  Arling- 


FIG.    297 — WASHINGTON.      WHITE  HOUSE.       (HOBAN's  ORIGINAL  DESIGN) 


ton  in  Virginia,  where  the  ponderous  columns  of  the  great 
temple  of  Paestum  were  imitated,  as  the  Bennett  house  in 
New  Bedford,  with  its  hexastyle  Ionic  main  portico  and 
tetrastyle  wings,  as  Berry  Hill  in  Virginia,  with  two  octastyle 
Greek  Doric  porticoes  and  balancing  outbuildings  of  the  same 
order,  or  as  the  Hill  House  in  Athens,  Georgia,  with  a  Corin- 
thian peristyle  eight  columns  wide  in  front,  show  extremes  of 
classicism  which  have  no  parallel  abroad.  City  houses  in 
blocks  showed  the  same  tendencies  as  houses  which  stood 
isolated.  In  1 793  Bulfinch  erected  for  the  first  time  in  America 
a  block  of  unified  design,  the  Franklin  Crescent  in  Boston, 
with  pavilions  of  academic  scheme  and  Adam  detail.  Some 
coherent  treatment  of  the  block  remained  an  ideal,  although 
one  seldom  realized.  The  most  notable  later  example  was 
Colonnade  Row  in  Lafayette  Place,  New  York  (1827),  which 
had  a  free-standing  Greek  Corinthian  order  carried  throughout 
its  length.  The  interiors  of  the  classical  houses  lost  in  richness 
through  the  abandoning  of  paneling,  and  through  the  chaste 


5so        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

purism  which  confined  all  detail  to  essential  structural  ele- 
ments. The  tall,  cool  rooms,  with  their  occasional  screens  of 
columns,  served  now  as  neutral  backgrounds  to  rich  furniture 
and  hangings. 

Churches.  Post-colonial  buildings,  differing  but  little  from 
the  more  advanced  buildings  erected  before  the  Revolution, 
were  also  common  among  the  churches  of  the  early  republic. 
Here  also  slender  proportions  came  in  with  Adam  detail. 
Nevertheless  more  monumental  effects,  parallel  to  those  at- 
tained in  public  buildings,  made  their  appearance  soon  after 
the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  fundamental 
work  was  Latrobe's  Catholic  Cathedral  in  Baltimore  (1805- 
21),  the  first  cathedral  undertaken  in  the  United  States — where 
it  was  as  novel  in  its  size  and  ritualistic  arrangement  as  in  its 
classical  forms.  The  plan  was  a  Latin  cross,  vaulted  through- 
out, with  a  low  dome  over  the  crossing,  a  western  portico  of 
Greek  detail,  and  twin  belfries,  Hellenized  as  best  they  might 
be.  In  1816  Latrobe  employed  the  Greek  cross  form  for 
Saint  John's  Episcopal  Church  in  Washington.  Robert  Mills 
developed  the  auditorium  type  of  octagonal  or  circular  form 
in  the  Monumental  Church  in  Richmond,  Virginia  (begun 
1812),  and  others.  The  temple  form  was  only  adopted  later, 
for  instance  in  Saint  Paul's  Church,  Boston  (1820),  with  an 
Ionic  prostyle  portico  of  six  columns. 

Prisons  and  asylums.  With  its  new  departures  in  all 
branches  of  government,  America  soon  took  the  lead  in  the 
reform  of  methods  of  punishment  and  of  the  treatment  of  the 
insane.  The  New  York  State  Prison,  built  by  Joseph  Mangin 
in  1796-98,  included  provision  for  the  separation  of  the  sexes 
and  of  classes  of  criminals,  and  the  Virginia  Penitentiary, 
built  by  Latrobe  in  1797-1800,  was  based  on  the  principle  of 
solitary  confinement.  Later  these  ideas  were  more  fully 
applied,  and  embodied  in  radial  plans,  by  the  architect  John 
Haviland,  of  English  birth.  By  1835  the  American  prisons 
were  so  favorably  known  that  commissions  from  England, 
France,  and  other  European  countries  came  to  study  them 
and  to  introduce  their  principles  abroad. 

The  Gothic  revival  in  America.  Although  Jefferson,  with  his 
underlying  vein  of  romanticism,  had  proposed  imitations  of 
Gothic  models  as  early  as  1771,  Latrobe  was  the  first  to 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


execute  a  Gothic  design,  in  Sedgeley,  a  country  house  near 
Philadelphia  (1800).  For  the  cathedral  in  Baltimore  he 
submitted  an  alternative  scheme  which  was  the  first  Gothic 
church  design  in  America.  In  1807  Godefroi,  a  French 
engineer  and  architect,  carried  out  the  chapel  of  Saint  Mary's 
Seminary  in  Baltimore  with  Gothic  forms.  Other  architects 
soon  essayed  occasional  buildings  in  Gothic,  still  inspired  less 
by  a  conscious  prin- 
ciple of  eclecticism 
than  a  romantic  in- 
terest in  the  style,  of 
which  neither  the 
structural  principles 
nor  the  decorative 
forms  were  much  un- 
derstood.  A  new 
period  in  the  Gothic 
revival  was  opened  by 
the  building  of  Trinity 
Church  in  New  York, 
by  Richard  Upjohn 
(1839-46,  Fig.  298). 
Here  the  design  was 
carefully  studied  from 
English  examples. 
These  long  remained 
the  favorite  models, 
although  James  Ren- 
wick  in  Saint  Patrick's 

Cathedral,  New  York  (1850-79),  adopted  the  traditional 
French  scheme  with  twin  western  towers.  In  the  sixties 
the  influence  of  Ruskin  led  to  the  adoption  of  Italian 
Gothic  detail,  and  to  a  moral  fervor  in  the  advocacy  of 
medievalism  which  had  hitherto  been  absent  in  America. 
Meanwhile,  in  the  forties,  the  imitation  of  temples  in 
domestic  architecture  had  been  attacked  as  absurd  and 
impractical,  and  cottages  and  villas  of  Gothic,  Elizabethan, 
Swiss,  or  "Italian"  .style  had  taken  their  places,  as  more  flexible 
and  convenient,  more  domestic,  and  more  in  harmony  with 
the  landscape.  Individual  Greek  forms,  however,  had  con- 


FIG.    298 — NEW   YORK.      TRINITY   CHURCH 


552        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

tinued  to  be  employed  for  the  details  of  other  houses,  especially 
in  the  towns,  and  thus  both  romanticism  and  classicism  were 
gradually  replaced  by  an  eclecticism  which  chose  for  each 
building  the  style  which  seemed  most  appropriate  to  its  use 
and  surroundings. 

Eclecticism.  In  America,  where  there  were  so  few  trained 
architects  or  accessible  models,  the  supplanting  of  traditional 
knowledge  of  forms  by  unrestrained  eclecticism  had  even  more 
disastrous  results  for  the  common  run  of  buildings  than  it  had 
in  Europe.  The  Civil  War  (1861-65),  with  the  materialism  of 
the  resulting  era  of  economic  reconstruction,  accentuated  the 
difficulty,  and  subjected  government  architecture  to  a  mechani- 
cal system.  Nevertheless  there  was  no  period  of  years  in 
which  competent  and  thoughtful  men  did  not  seek  to  uphold 
the  ideals  of  their  art,  in  buildings  which  worthily  represented 
contemporary  movements  in  Europe.  Most  notable  of  the 
earlier  men  was  Richard  Morris  Hunt  (1828-95),  the  first 
American  to  study  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris,  who 
brought  with  him  to  New  York  in  1855  the  rationalistic  train- 
ing of  the  school  and  a  preference  for  French  Renaissance 
forms,  then  dominant  under  the  Second  Empire.  In  the 
Lenox  Library,  New  York  (1870-77),  he  followed  the  tendencies 
of  Labrouste ;  while  in  the  houses  for  the  Vanderbilts  in  New 
York  and  at  Biltmore,  in  the  Astor  residence,  and  in  "cottages  " 
at  Newport,  he  exploited  every  phase  of  his  favorite  style,  only 
adopting  a  more  classical  tendency  in  the  last  years  of  his 
life,  under  the  influence  of  younger  men.  The  older  archi- 
tects of  English  training,  meanwhile,  were  attempting  to 
establish  the  supremacy  of  Victorian  Gothic,  and  in  churches, 
at  least,  medieval  forms  were  employed  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Richardson  and  the  Romanesque.  When  Henry  Hobson 
Richardson,  another  American  of  French  academic  training, 
chose  the  Romanesque  style  for  his  accepted  project  for 
Trinity  Church  in  Boston  (1872),  he  was  influenced  primarily 
by  the  slight  depth  of  the  site,  which  was  unfavorable  to  a 
Gothic  nave.  He  clothed  the  broad  cruciform  naves  and 
great  central  tower  with  a  rugged  mantle  of  polychrome  sand- 
stone reminiscent  of  Auvergne  and  Salamanca  (Fig.  299).  By 
the  time  the  building  was  completed  in  1877,  however,  he  saw 
in  Romanesque  forms  a  far-reaching  adaptability  to  American 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


553 


needs,  which  would  permit  the  development  of  a  truly 
national  style.  Their  simplicity  and  ruggedness  seemed  suited 
alike  to  materials  readily  available,  to  the  general  limitation 
of  funds,  and  to  the  relative  lack  of  skilled  carvers.  In 
subsequent  buildings,  like  the  Allegheny  Court  House  at 


FIG.  299 — BOSTON.    TRINITY    CHURCH,    AS    ORIGINALLY    BUILT.     (VAN 

RENSSELAER) 


Pittsburgh  (1884),  he  expressed  freely,  with  a  personal  vocabu- 
lary of  Romanesque  elements,  the  ideal  character  and  prac- 
tical conditions  of  a  great  number  of  contemporary  types — 
the  town  library,  the  country  railroad  station,  even  the  vast 
warehouse.  Richardson's  mannerisms,  however,  such  as  the 
fondness  for  towers  and  for  broad  low  arches,  were  more 
easily  acquired  by  others  than  his  power  of  picturesque  yet 
logical  composition.  Thus,  after  his  untimely  death  in  1886, 
his  style  was  quickly  discredited  by  imitators,  while  the  abler 
architects  continued  their  independent  development. 

"Queen  Anne"  and  the  beginnings  of  the  colonial  revival. 
Simultaneously  with  the  building  of  Trinity  had  come  the 
founding  of  the  Queen  Anne  movement  in  England,  with  its 


554        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

wide  program  of  frankness  and  colloquialism,  and  the  revela- 
tion of  foreign  arts  and  crafts  to  America  through  the  Centen- 
nial Exposition  in  1876.  These  inspired  many  attempts  at 
imitation,  and  some  free  and  original  creations,  such  as  the 
Casino  at  Newport,  built  in  1881  by  the  firm  of  McKim,  Mead, 
and  White.  The  attention  of  these  men  and  some  others, 
hitherto  attracted  by  the  French  Renaissance  or  the  Roman- 


copyright  by  the  American  Architect  and  Building  News  Co. 
FIG.    3OO — BOSTON.      PUBLIC  LIBRARY 

esque,  was  naturally  drawn  to  the  American  buildings  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  which  correspond  to  the 
prototypes  of  the  Queen  Anne  style  abroad.  Thus  began  a 
direct  revival  of  colonial  architecture,  in  many  houses  of  the 
eighties,  with  a  richness  of  delicate  detail  on  the  exterior 
very  different,  to  be  sure,  from  the  general  simplicity  of  the 
old  examples. 

The  adoption  of  Renaissance  forms.  It  was  this  adaptation 
of  native  Renaissance  forms  which  prepared  McKim,  Mead, 
and  White  for  the  adoption  of  those  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 
These  were  employed  for  the  first  time  by  one  of  their 
associates,  Holden  Wells,  in  the  Villard  houses  in  New  York 
(1885),  where  the  arched  windows  of  the  Cancelleria  furnished 
the  motive.  The  decisive  work,  however,  was  the  Boston 
Public  Library  (1888-95,  Fig.  300),  in  which  McKim,  taking 
his  departure  from  the  Bibliotheque  Sainte  Genevieve,  gave  the 


555 

scheme  the  warmer  and  more  robust  character  of  Alberti's 
San  Francesco  at  Rimini.  In  the  interior  each  element  of  the 
building  was  sympathetically  studied  from  Italian  examples 
which  showed  the  structural  use  of  classical  elements,  and 
executed  with  a  characteristic  treatment  of  each  material  and 
a  harmony  of  decoration  hitherto  unknown  in  America. 


HG.   3OI — ROCKVILLE.      GARDEN   OF    "MAXWELL   COURT" 

McKim's  purism  of  detail  in  the  library  was  complemented 
by  the  luxurious  elaboration  of  Renaissance  ornament  by 
White  and  Wells  in  the  Century  Club  and  Madison  Square 
Garden  in  New  York  (1891).  The  effect  on  current  practice 
was  electrical.  Almost  overnight  Romanesque  and  Queen 
Anne  gave  way  to  Renaissance  forms,  which  more  nearly 
approached  universal  acceptance  than  those  of  any  style  since 
the  Greek  revival.  There  were  variants,  to  be  sure,.  Fresh 
arrivals  from  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts  tended  to  follow  French 
1  Renaissance  and  academic  architecture  rather  than  Italian. 


556        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

For  domestic  buildings  many  preferred  more  literal  imitations 
of  the  "Georgian"  houses  of  the  colonies  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  Italian  tendency  received  a  powerful  reinforce- 
ment, however,  in  the  work  of  Charles  A.  Platt,  who  intro- 
duced the  Italian  formal  garden  into  America  (Fig.  301),  and 
has  steadily  widened  the  scope  of  his  architectural  activity 
without  departing  far  from  his  favorite  style.  It  still  counts 
many  adherents. 

Neo-classicism.  The  Chicago  Exposition.  The  crucial  test 
between  the  partisans  of  a  free  and  modern  interpretation  of 
motives  chiefly  medieval  and  the  partisans  of  a  strict  following 
of  some  form  of  classic  architecture  came  in  the  buildings  of 
the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893.  The  studies  of 
John  W.  Root,  the  original  consulting  architect  of  the  exposi- 
tion, were  of  a  free  semi-Romanesque  character,  with  some 
recognition  of  the  steel  construction  and  the  temporary  nature 
of  the  buildings.  These  conceptions  might  well  have 
dominated  the  ensemble  had  not  the  death  of  Root  on  the  eve 
of  the  undertaking  left  the  group  of  Eastern  architects,  headed 
by  Hunt,  to  whom  he  had  confided  the  buildings  of  the  Court 
of  Honor,  free  to  carry  out  their  own  ideas.  These  were  that 
the  mutual  dependence  of  their  buildings,  and  the  formal 
character  of  the  court,  demanded  a  consistent  style  of  generally 
Roman  classical  character,  with  a  uniform  cornice  height 
fixed  at  sixty  feet.  This  did  not  preclude  a  treatment  of 
merely  academic  cast,  with  details  tinged  by  Italian  or  Spanish 
influence,  so  that  within  the  classical  scheme  there  was  a 
considerable  diversity  of  style.  The  buildings  which  attracted 
the  most  admiration,  however,  were  those  in  which  the  main 
cornice  was  reached  by  a  single  order  of  strictly  Roman 
character — namely,  the  Agricultural  Building  by  McKim, 
the  Fine  Arts  group  and  the  "Peristyle"  toward  the  lake,  both 
by  Charles  B.  Attwood  (Fig.  302).  Attwood,  in  the  Fine  Arts 
Building,  followed  Besnard's  project  for  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome,  with  its  central  portico  with  an  attic  and  a  saucer  dome 
behind;  McKim  was  also  greatly  influenced  by  the  same 
design,  although  he  followed  it  much  less  closely.  True  to  the 
hopes  of  their  designers,  the  classical  buildings  produced  a 
cumulative  effect  of  harmony  and  magnificence  which  was 
deeply  stamped  on  the  memory  of  the  whole  nation. 


o 
"" 


u 


G     „ 

H     S" 
C      > 


0      O 


hjMr.0 

f 


558         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Neo-classicism.  Later  developments.  Although  the  leading 
architects  of  the  exposition  had  hoped  to  give  a  striking  object- 
lesson  of  the  value  of  classical  and  academic  formulae,  they 
hardly  expected  the  result  which  ensued.  Whereas,  earlier, 
there  had  been  one  or  two  isolated  experiments  with  strictly 
classical  forms,  such  as  the  Grant  Mausoleum  in  New  York 
(1891),  the  whole  public  architecture  of  the  country  was  now 
turned  into  a  monumental  and  classical  channel.  The  first 
fruit  of  the  movement  was  McKim's  unified  classical  design 
for  Columbia  University  in  New  York,  with  its  great  domed 
library  (1895).  A  fresh  impulse  came  through  the  restoration 
of  the  University  of  Virginia  by  White  after  the  fire  of  1901,  and 
the  activity  of  McKim — with  D.  H.  Burnham,  Olmsted,  and 
Saint-Gaudens — on  the  commission  for  the  improvement  of 
Washington.  The  character  of  the  early  buildings  of  the 
republic  thus  gave  a  nationalistic  sanction  to  the  classical 
tendency,  and  the  style  of  new  government  buildings  was 
henceforth  established.  Milestones  in  the  progress  of  the  move- 
ment are  the  Knickerbocker  (Columbia)  Trust  Company 
in  New  York,  with  its  single  rich  Corinthian  order  including 
the  whole  height  of  the  building,  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Terminal  Station,  with  its  long  Doric  facades,  and  its  great 
hall,  literally  copied  from  the  Roman  thermae,  almost  devoid 
of  practical  functions.  From  the  start  the  orders  used 
frequently  included  Greek  forms,  and  these  have  been  em- 
ployed increasingly.  A  notable  recent  instance  is  the  Lincoln 
Memorial  in  Washington,  a  peristylar  cella  in  which  the  old 
revivalist  enthusiasm  for  an  abstract  architectonic  ideal  has 
prevailed  over  any  suggestion  of  individual  character.  The 
current  tendency  to  employ  Adam  or  Louis  XVI.  forms  in 
residences  and  hotels  shows  the  extension  of  the  movement  to 
fields  where  more  monumental  treatment  would  be  out  of  place. 
This  second  classical  revival  in  America  has  little  contemporary 
parallel  abroad  except  in  England,  which  has  itself  been 
influenced  in  the  matter  by  developments  across  the  ocean. 
While  the  rest  of  the  world  is  seeking,  in  one  way  or  another, 
new  forms  expressive  of  the  novel  elements  of  modern  life, 
this  insistence  on  the  traditional  authority  of  the  past  can  be 
adequately  explained  only  by  the  unparalleled  heritage  of 
classical  monuments  from  the  formative  period  of  the  nation. 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


559 


Thus  the  founders  of  the  republic  might  seem  for  the  moment 
to  have  achieved  their  aim  of  establishing  classical  architecture 
as  a  permanent  national  style. 

Gothic  survivals.  In  spite  of  the  overwhelming  victory  of 
classical  forms,  the  Gothic  tendency  has  been  kept  alive,  largely 
through  the  enthusiasm  and  artistry  of  two  men,  Ralph  Adams 


FIG.   303 — ASHMONT.      CHURCH   OF   ALL   SAINTS 


Cram  and  Bertram  Grosvenor  Goodhue,  who  practised  in 
partnership  for  many  years.  Their  initial  success  was  the 
church  of  All  Saints,  Ashmont,  Massachusetts  (1892,  Fig. 
303),  which  embodied  the  same  free  tendencies  as  the  designs 
of  Sedding  in  England.  These  tendencies  have  been  per- 
petuated in  Goodhue's  later  work,  such  as  the  chapel  and  other 
buildings  of  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  with  their 
picturesque  adaptation  to  the  rugged  site.  Cram  has  tended 
to  follow  precedents  more  strictly,  and  to  range  more  widely 
among  the  medieval  styles,  as  in  his  "Early  English "  Calvary 


560 

Church  at  Pittsburgh,  and  the  late  Byzantine  administration 
building  for  the  Rice  Institute  at  Houston,  Texas.  Even  in  its 
last  strongholds,  ecclesiastical  and  collegiate  architecture,  the 
Gothic  has  had  to  yield  ground,  especially  to  the  colonial 
revival.  Nevertheless,  although  both  the  Protestant  sects  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  now  prefer  the  styles  unequivo- 
cally associated  with  their  past,  the  preference  of  the  Anglican 
episcopate  for  Gothic  forms,  and  the  personal  prestige  and 
ability  of  the  Gothic  leaders,  have  still  maintained  the  Gothic 
tendency. 

Functionalist. .  The  striving  for  characteristic  expression, 
which  is  the  principle  of  functionalism  in  architecture,  appeared 
subordinately — in  America  as  in  Europe — in  all  the  movements 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Structural  purism  was  a  quality 
of  Latrobe's  designs,  as  it  was,  more  pronouncedly,  of  those  of 
the  Gothicists.  The  lessons  of  Ruskin  and  Viollet-le-Duc  were 
not  forgotten  in  the  early  years  of  the  Renaissance  revival 
and  of  neo-classicism,  when  it  was  felt  that  the  column  must 
be  used  only  in  its  original  function  of  an  isolated  support. 
Even  in  the  later  years  of  these  movements,  when  structural 
purism  has  yielded  to  the  expression  of  monumental  character, 
this  very  character  itself  is  felt  to  be  but  one  of  a  number  of 
ideals  which  govern  the  different  phases  of  architecture — 
civic,  religious,  and  domestic.  Moreover,  in  spite  of  eclectic 
inclination — so  strong  in  America,  especially  in  McKim's 
work — to  model  the  exterior  of  a  building  on  an  individual 
prototype  selected  in  advance,  there  has  been  a  steady  de- 
velopment of  logical  planning  and  expression  of  plan,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  Beaux- Arts  men.  McKim  and  White 
themselves  were  the  pioneers  in  a  characteristic  use  of  materials 
which  has  produced  such  interesting  results  as  the  "Harvard" 
and  "tapestry"  brickwork,  the  modeled  and  polychrome  terra 
cotta,  and  the  local  ledge-stone  revival  of  Philadelphia. 

Expression  of  structure.  A  new  problem.  In  the  expression 
of  structure  a  new  problem  has  been  presented  by  the  steel- 
frame  building.  The  absence  of  legal  restriction  permitted 
real  estate  owners  in  the  crowded  districts  of  New  York  and 
Chicago,  about  1889,  to  increase  the  number  of  stories  in  new 
office  buildings  by  supporting  the  floors  entirely  on  iron  or 
steel  columns,  leaving  the  wall  with  only  its  own  weight  to 


carry.  The  development  of  elevators  or  lifts  made  the  upper 
stories  as  desirable  as  the  lower  ones,  and  made  possible 
"skyscrapers"  like  the  World  Building  in  New  York,  with  a 
height  of  three  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet.  Here,  however, 
the  self-supporting  walls  reached  a  thickness  of  nine  feet  at  the 
base,  and  injured  the  value  of  the  lower  stories.  It  soon 


•  Copyright  by  the  American  Architect  and  Building  News  Co. 
FIG.   304 — BUFFALO.      (PRUDENTIAL)    GUARANTY   BUILDING 

occurred  to  the  designers  that  the  wall  itself  might  be  supported 
on  the  steel  frame  at  intervals,  and  be  reduced  to  a  mere  veneer, 
with  great  resulting  economy.  Thus  buildings  of  twelve  to 
twenty  stories  have  become  commonplace  in  every  con- 
siderable city,  and  such  extreme  heights  as  that  of  the  Wool- 
worth  Building  in  New  York  (779  feet)  have  been  reached. 
The  retention  of  a  shell  of  masonry,  which  differentiates  these 
buildings  from  the  steel  and  glass  shop  fronts  abroad,  was 
originally  due  to  a  natural  adherence  to  tradition.  It  has 
been  perpetuated  for  a  far  more  vital  reason — the  extreme 
necessity  of  rendering  such  tall  buildings  secure  against  fire, 


562        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

before  which  exposed  steel  work  proved  to  twist  and  bend 
with  disastrous  results.  The  only  adequate  protection  proved 
to  be  that  furnished  by  casing  all  the  structural  members  in 

masonry,  preferably 
brick  or  terra  cotta, 
which  had  already  been 
through  fire.  Aided  by 
experience  in  the  great 
conflagrations  in  Balti- 
more (1904)  and  San 
Francisco  (1906),  the 
technique  of  such  fire- 
proof construction  has 
developed  so  that  with 
the  aid  of  metal  interior 
trim,  wire  glass,  com- 
posite floors  resting  on 
steel  beams,  and  other 
devices,  a  building  can 
now  be  made  not  only 
non  -  combustible,  but 
absolutely  proof  against 
fire,  whether  arising 
within  or  sweeping  the 
surroundings  without. 
The  manifest  practical 
advantages  of  the  sys- 
tem have  led  to  world- 
wide adoption  of  many 
of  its  features.  Its  em- 
ployment in  facades, 
however,  involves  a  new 
and  delicate  problem  of 
expression. 

The  solutions.  A 
visual  indication  that 
the  masonry  was  no 
longer  self  -  supporting 
but  depended  on  the  steel 

FIG.    305 — NEW   YORK.      WOOL  WORTH  .  ,    .  , 

BUILDING  frame,  was  achieved 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE 


563 


about  1895  by  Louis  Sullivan,  notably  in  the  Guaranty 
(Prudential)  Building  in  Buffalo  (Fig.  304).  He  abandoned 
a  wall  surface  of  ashlar  in  favor  of  a  simple  casing  of  the 
members  of  the  frame,  with  glass  filling  the  whole  of  the  space 
between.  The  greater  weight  carried  by  the  vertical  members 
he  recognized  by  emphasizing  the  vertical  lines.  To  avoid 
any  structural  suggestion  in  the  casing  he  used  terra  cotta 
having  a  delicate  surface  pattern.  The  principle  of  his 
designs  has  been  widely  fol- 
lowed by  architects  of  tall 
buildings,  irrespective  of  the 
style  employed,  although  few 
have  carried  it  through  with 
such  logical  completeness. 
To  Cass  Gilbert  the  emphasis 
on  the  vertical  lines  sug- 
gested the  employment  of 
Gothic  forms,  which  the 
eclat  of  his  employment  of 
them  in  the  Woolworth 
Building  (Fig.  305)  has 
popularized  to  some  extent. 
In  many  very  recent  build- 
ings, however,  a  reactionary 
tendency,  based  on  the  over- 
whelming predominance  of 
classicism  in  other  depart- 
ments of  architecture,  has 
resulted  in  a  reversion  to 
plain  wall  surfaces  and  ap- 
plications of  the  orders. 

Modernist  forms.  The 
origins.  America,  with  its 
freedom  from  the  restraint 
of  tradition,  was  also  natu- 
rally one  of  the  first  coun- 
tries to  experiment  with 
novel  forms,  consciously  pre- 
ferred to  those  of  the  past  as  expressive  of  modernity.  The 
old  desire  for  an  "American  style"  could  hot  be  satisfied 


FIG.   306 — CHICAGO    EXPOSITION. 

TRANSPORTATION    BUILDING. 

DETAIL 


564        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

merely  by  the  general  adoption  of  any  group  of  historic  forms, 
even  if,  as  in  the  case  of  Richardsonian  Romanesque,  its 
adoption  was  purely  an  American  movement.  In  Richardson's 
work  itself  there  was,  as  we  have  noted,  a  strong  tendency  to 
modification  and  originality  of  detail,  and  this  tendency  was 
taken  up  with  special  aptitude  by  Harvey  Ellis,  Root,  and 


FIG.    307 — OAK    PARK.      CHURCH   OF   THE    UNITY 


others  in  the  Middle  West.  The  manifesto  of  a  truly  inde- 
pendent progressive  tendency  was  the  Transportation  Building 
of  the  Chicago  Exposition  by  Louis  Sullivan  (1893,  Fig.  306), 
contemporary  with  the  earliest  similar  attempts  abroad.  Here, 
side  by  side  with  the  first  monuments  of  neo-classicism,  was 
a  building  in  which  there  were  indeed  some  reminiscences  of 
Romanesque  and  Saracenic  motives,  but  in  which  the  essential 
effort  was  to  express  the  modernity  and  novelty  of  the  type  of 
building,  its  materials,  and  its  structural  system.  The  plain 
stuccoed  wall  surfaces,  with  their  unbroken,  block-like  cornices 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  565 

enriched  by  bands  of  fertile  original  relief  ornament,  the  arch 
and  column  with  novel  yet  expressive  forms,  anticipated  by 
many  years  corresponding  treatments  in  the  German  "Seces- 
sion." In  spite  of  the  overpowering  influence  of  the  classical 
ensemble  of  the  exposition  on  America  at  large,  this  building 
made  some  converts,  chiefly  in  Chicago  itself.  Through  Sulli- 
van's pioneer  expression  of  the  veneered  steel  frame  the  move- 
ment had  an  influence  far  beyond  its  own  circle  of  devotees. 

Later  developments.  That  participation  in  the  movement  did 
not  involve  mere  imitation  of  its  leader  was  early  established 
by  one  of  Sullivan's  pupils,  Frank  Lloyd  Wright.  In  his 
designs  for  residences  he  has  employed  broad  ramified  plans, 
wide  eaves,  novel  fenestration,  and  a  harmonious  use  of 
abstract  motives  of  ornament,  which  have  a  suggestion  of  the 
Japanese.  The  appropriateness  of  these  houses  to  the  land- 
scape of  the  lakes  and  the  plains  has  been  widely  recognized, 
and  they  have  profoundly  influenced  the  architecture  of  the 
Middle  West.  More  ambitious  applications  of  similar  forms 
have  not  been  wanting.  In  the  Midway  Gardens  in  Chicago 
Wright  has  embodied  the  spirit  of  gaiety  in  forms  of  exuberant 
yet  delicate  fantasy.  In  his  Church  of  the  Unity  at  Oak  Park 
(Fig.  307),  he  has  evolved  a  monumental  and  characteristic 
house  of  worship  for  disciples  of  modern  rationalism.  To  the 
present  time,  however,  the  movement  has  received  more 
appreciation  abroad  than  at  home. 

It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  wide  acceptance  and 
nationalistic  basis  of  the  neo-classical  tendency  will  enable  it  to 
surmount  the  elements  of  weakness  which  aided  the  downfall 
of  the  earlier  classical  revival,  or  whether  the  international 
forces  of  functionalism  will  ultimately  cause  a  wider  adoption 
of  modernist  forms. 


PERIODS  OF  ARCHITECTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

I.      Colonial  period,  to  1776  (or  later  in  Spanish  colonies). 
Spanish  colonies. 

Florida  (Saint  Augustine  founded  1565). 

Fort  San  Marco  (Fort  Marion)  at  Saint  Augustine, 

completed  1756. 
Cathedral  at  Saint  Augustine, begun  1793  (rebuilt  1887). 


566        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

New  Mexico  (Santa  F6  founded  1605). 

Cathedral  of  Saint  Francis  at  Santa  Fe",  1713-14. 
California  (San  Diego  founded  1769). 

San  Carlos  Mission,  present  church,  1793-97. 

San  Juan  Capistrano  Mission,  later  church,  begun  1797. 

San  Gabriel  Mission,  present  church,  begun  1812. 

Santa  Barbara  Mission,  present  church,  1815-20. 
Louisiana  (under  Spain  1764-1800). 

Cathedral  at  New  Orleans,  1792-94. 

Cabildo  at  New  Orleans,  1795. 
Dutch  colonies,  1624-64. 

"Stadt  Huis"  at  New  Amsterdam,  1642  (demolished). 
English  colonies. 

Seventeenth  century. 
Virginia  (Jamestown  founded  1607). 

Thoroughgood  house,  Princess  Anne  Co.,  c.  1640. 

Saint  Luke's,  Smithfield,  after  1631. 
Massachusetts  (Plymouth  founded  1620;  Boston,  1630). 

Fairbanks  house  in  Dedham,  1636. 

Whipple  house  in  Ipswich,  c.  1650. 

"Old  Ship"  Meeting  House  in  Hingham,  1681. 
Carolina  (Charleston  established  on  its  present  site  1680). 

Yeoman's  Hall,  Goose  Creek,  c.  1693. 
Pennsylvania  (Philadelphia  founded   1682). 

William  Perm  (Letitia)  house  in  Philadelphia,  1683  (?). 
Eighteenth  century. 
Houses. 

Mulberry  Castle,  South  Carolina,  1714. 

Westover,  Virginia,  c.  1730. 

Royall  house  in  Medford,  Massachusetts,  c.  1737. 

Mount  Airy,  Virginia,  1758. 

Whitehall,  Maryland,  c.  1760. 

Mount  Pleasant  in  Philadelphia,  c.  1761. 

Brewton  house  in  Charleston,  c.  1765. 

Monticello,  Virginia  (Thomas  Jefferson),  begun  1771. 

The  Woodlands,  near  Philadelphia,  c.  1775  (?). 
Churches. 

Old  Saint  Philip's,  Charleston,  1723  (since  rebuilt). 

Christ  Church,  Philadelphia  (John  Kearsley),  1727-44. 

Bang's    Chapel,    Boston    (Peter    Harrison),    1749-54, 
portico  1790. 

Saint  Michael's,  Charleston,  1752-61. 

Saint  Paul's  Chapel,  New  York  (McBean),  1764-66, 
steeple  1794. 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  567 

Public  buildings. 

Old  City  Hall  in  New  York,  1700  (demolished). 
Old    Virginia    Capitol    in    Williamsburg,    1702-04 

(demolished). 
Andrew  Hamilton  (1676-1741). 

Old  State  House  (Independence  Hall)  in  Philadel- 
phia, 1732-52. 
John  Smibert  (1684-1751). 

Faneuil  Hall  in  Boston,  1742  (since  twice  rebuilt). 
Peter  Harrison  (1716-75). 
Redwood  Library  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  1748-50. 
Brick  Market  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  1761. 
II.    National  period,  1776-date. 
Classicism,  c.  1785-1850. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  1743-1826. 

Virginia  Capitol  at  Richmond,  1785-98  (remodeled). 
Remodeling  of  Monticello,  1796-1808. 
University  of  Virginia,  1817-26. 
Pierre  Charles  L'Enfant,  1754-1825. 

Federal  Hall  in  New  York,  1789  (demolished). 
Plan  of  the  city  of  Washington,  1791. 
Robert  Morris  house,  Philadelphia,  1792-95  (demolished). 
Stephen  Hallet. 

Designs  for  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  1792-94. 
James  Hoban,  c.  1762-1831. 

South  Carolina  Capitol  at  Columbia,  1789  (destroyed). 
White  House  in  Washington,  1792-1829. 
William  Thornton,  1761-1828. 

Philadelphia  Library,  1789  (demolished). 
Designs  for  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  1793-1802. 
Charles  Bulfinch,  1763-1844. 
Beacon  column  in  Boston,  1789. 
Massachusetts  State  House  in  Boston,  1795-98. 
Massachusetts  General  Hospital  in  Boston,  1818-21. 
Completion  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  1818-29. 
Samuel  Blodget,  1759-1814. 

Bank  of  the  United  States  (Girard's  Bank)  in  Phila- 
delphia, 1795-97- 
Benjamin  Henry  Latrobe,  1766-1820. 

Bank  of  Pennsylvania  in  Philadelphia,  1799  (demolished). 
Works  at  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  1803-17. 
Cathedral  in  Baltimore,  1805-21. 

Exchange,  Bank,  and  Custom  House  at  Baltimore  (with 
Godefroi),  i8i«;-2Q  (demolished). 


5  68        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

(Second)  United  States  Bank  at  Philadelphia,  1819-24. 
Joseph  Mangin,  and  John  McComb,  1763-1853. 

New  York  City  Hall,  1803-12. 

Saint  John's,  Varick  Street,  New  York,  1803-07. 
Robert  Mills,  1781-1855. 

Washington  Monument  in  Baltimore,  1815-29. 

East  colonnade  of  the  Treasury  in  Washington,  1836-39. 

Washington  Monument  in  Washington,  1836-77. 
William  Strickland,  1787-1854. 

Merchants'  Exchange  in  Philadelphia,  1832-34. 

Tennessee  Capitol  at  Nashville,  begun  c.  1850. 
Ithiel  Town. 

Former  Connecticut  Capitol  at  New  Haven,  1829  (demol- 
ished). 

Custom  House  (Sub-Treasury)  in  New  York  (with  A.  J. 

Davis),  1834-41. 
Isaiah  Rogers. 

Merchants'  Exchange  (Old  Custom  House)  in  New  York, 

1835-41   (remodeled). 
Thomas  U.  Walter,  1804-88. 

Girard  College  in  Philadelphia,  1833-47. 

Wings  and  dome  of  Capitol  in  Washington,  1851-65. 
Romanticism,  c.  1800-50. 

Benjamin  Henry  Latrobe,  1766-1820. 

Sedgeley  near  Philadelphia,  1800  (demolished). 

Gothic  project  for  cathedral  in  Baltimore,  1805. 
Maximilian  Godefroi. 

Chapel  of  Saint  Mary's  Seminary  in  Baltimore,  1807. 
Richard  Upjohn,  1802-78. 

Trinity  Church  in  New  York,  1839-46. 
James  Ren  wick. 

Grace  Church  in  New  York,  1843-46. 

Saint  Patrick's  Cathedral  in  New  York,  1850-79. 
Eclecticism,  c.  i85o-date. 
French  Renaissance  phase. 
Richard  Morris  Hunt,  1828-95. 

Residence  of  W.  K.  Vanderbilt  in  New  York,  1883. 

Lenox  Library  in  New  York,  1870-77  (demolished). 

Biltmore,  North  Carolina. 
Romanesque  phase. 

Henry  Hobson  Richardson,  1838-86. 

Trinity  Church  in  Boston,   1872-77  (west  towers  with 
porch,   1896-98). 

Allegheny  County  buildings  in  Pittsburgh,  1884. 


AMERICAN  ARCHITECTURE  569 

Classical  phase. 

Charles  B.  Attwood,  1849-95. 

Fine  Arts  Building,  Chicago  Exposition,  1893. 
Charles  F.  McKim,  1847-1909;   William  R.  Mead,  1846-, 
and  Stanford  White,  1853-1906. 

Casino  at  Newport,  1881. 

Residence  of  Henry  Villard  in  New  York,  1885. 

Boston  Public  Library,  1888-95. 

Agricultural  Building,  Chicago  Exposition,  1893. 

Columbia  University  Library  in  New  York,   1895. 

Pennsylvania  Station  in  New  York,  completed  1910. 
John  M.  Carrere,  1858-1911,  and  Thomas  Hastings,  1860-. 

Ponce  de  Leon  Hotel  at  Saint  Augustine,  1887. 

New  York  Public  Library,  1897-1910. 
Cass  Gilbert,  1859-. 

Minnesota  State  Capitol  in  Saint  Paul,  1898-1906. 

Woolworth  Building  in  New  York,  1911-13. 
Charles  A.  Platt,  1861-. 

Larz  Anderson  Garden  at  Brookline. 

Leader  Building  at  Cleveland,  1912. 
Gothic  phase. 

Ralph  Adams   Cram,  1863-;    Bertram   Grosvenor   Good- 
hue,  1869-. 

All  Saints',  Ashmont,  Massachusetts,  1892. 

United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  1903. 

Saint  Thomas's,  New  York,  1906. 

Calvary  Church  in  Pittsburgh,  1907. 

Rice  Institute  in  Houston,  1909. 
Functionalism,  c.  i893-date. 
Louis  Sullivan,  1856-. 

Transportation  Building,  Chicago  Exposition,  1893. 
Prudential  (Guaranty)  Building  in  Buffalo,  c.  1895. 
Frank  Lloyd  Wright. 

Larkin  Building  in  Buffalo,  1004. 

Church  of  the  Unity  in  Oak  Park,  Illinois,  1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

P-re-colonial  architecture.  A  general  view  of  the  major  part  of  the 
field  is  afforded  by  three  handbooks  by  T.  A.  Joyce:  South  American 
Archceology,  1912;  Mexican  Archceology,  1914;  and  Archeology  of 
Central  America  and  the  West  Indies,  1916.  For  North  America  see 
S.  D.  Peet's  Prehistoric  America,  5  vols.,  1890-1905.  Among  im- 


570        A  HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

portant  works  on  special  regions  are  W.  H.  Holmes 's  Archaological 
Studies  among  the  Ancient  Cities  of  Mexico,  1895-97,  and  H.  J. 
Spinden's  Maya  Art,  1913.  For  others  consult  the  bibliographies  in 
Joyce's  handbooks  and,  on  Mexico,  in  W.  Lehmann's  Methods  and 
Results  in  Mexican  Research,  1909. 

Colonial  architecture:  Spanish  colonies.  S.  Baxter's  Spanish- 
Colonial  Architecture  in  Mexico,  10  vols.,  1901,  is  an  elaborate  work; 
L.  LaBeaume  and  W.  B.  Papin's  The  Picturesque  'Architecture  of 
Mexico,  1915,  a  slighter  book,  composed  primarily  of  views.  For 
California  see  especially  P.  Elder's  The  Old  Spanish  Missions  of 
California,  1913,  and  R.  Newcomb's  The  Franciscan  Mission  Architect- 
ure of  Alta  California,  1916;  for  New  Mexico,  L.  B.  Prince's  Spanish 
Mission  Churches  of  New  Mexico,  1915. 

English  colonies.  A  popular  general  survey  is  afforded  by  H.  D. 
Eberlein's  Architecture  of  Colonial  America,  1915.  General  collec- 
tions of  drawings  and  photographs  are  The  Georgian  Period,  3  vols., 
1898-1902 ;  Frank  E.  Wallis's  Old  Colonial  Architecture  and  Furniture, 
1887,  and  American  Architecture,  Decoration,  and  Furniture,  1896; 
G.  H.  Policy's  The  Architecture,  Interiors,  and  Furniture  of  the  Amer- 
ican Colonies  During  the  XVIII.  Century,  1914;  and  D.  Millar's 
Measured  Drawings  of  some  Colonial  and  Georgian  Houses,  2  vols., 
1916.  Among  regional  works  with  important  texts  are  N.  M.  Isham 
and  A.  F.  Brown's  Early  Rhode  Island  Houses,  1895,  and  their  Early 
Connecticut  Houses,  1900;  H.  C.  Wise  and  H.  F.  Biedleman's  Colonial 
Architecture  .  .  .  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware,  1913; 
R.  A.  Lancaster's  Historic  Virginia  Homes  and  Churches.  Regional 
works  of  large  photographs  are  J.  E.  Chandler's  Colonial  Architecture 
of  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia,  1882;  J.  M.  Corner  and  E. 
Soderholz's  Domestic  Colonial  Architecture  in  New  England,  1891, 
Domestic  Colonial  Architecture  in  Maryland  and  Virginia,  1892; 

E.  A.  Crane  and  E.  Soderholz's  Examples  of  Colonial  Architecture  in 
South   Carolina  and  Georgia,    1898.     Regional  works  of  measured 
drawings  are  W.  D.  Goforth  and  W.  J.  McAuley's  Old  Colonial 
Architectural  Details  in  and  around  Philadelphia,  1890;     L.  L.  Howe 
and  C.  Fuller's  Details  from  Old  New  England  Houses,  1913;   R.  C. 
Kingman's  New  England  Georgian  Architecture,  1913;  J.  P.  Sims  and 
C.  Willing's  Old  Philadelphia  Colonial  Details,  1914;  H.  F.  Cunning- 
ham and  others'  Measured  Drawings  of  Georgian  Architecture  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  1914.     Among  the  works  treating  generally  of 
single  classes  of  buildings  are  A.  Embury's  American  Churches,  1914; 

F.  R.  Vogel's  Das  amerikanische  Haus,  1910;   and  J.  E.  Chandler's 
The  Colonial  House,  1916. 

National  architecture:  United  States.  No  adequate  general  work 
has  hitherto  been  attempted.  Brief  sketches  which  supplement  one 


571 

another  are  those  of  H.  Van  Brunt:  Development  and  Prospects  of 
Architecture  in  the  United  States  (in  N.  S.  Shaler's  United  States  of 
America,  1894,  vol.  2,  pp.  425-51)  and  C.  F.  Bragdon:  Architecture 
in  the  United  States,  in  the  Architectural  Record,  1909,  vol.  25,  p.  426, 
and  vol.  26,  pp.  38,  84.  The  development  of  certain  types  through 
the  successive  periods  may  be  followed  in  A  History  of  Public  Build- 
ings Under  the  Control  of  the  Treasury  Department,  1901;  in  F.  R. 
Vogel's  Das  amerikanische  Haus,  1910;  and  in  J.  W.  Dow's  American 
Renaissance:  a  Review  of  Domestic  Architecture,  1904.  For  the  post- 
colonial  and  classical  period  see  M.  Schuyler's  The  Old  Greek  Revival, 
in  the  American  Architect,  1910-11,  vol.  98,  pp.  121,  201;  vol.  99, 
pp.  81,  161.  This  may  be  supplemented  by  G.  Brown's  History  of  the 
United  States  Capitol,  vol.  i,  1900;  and  the  biographies  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Architect,  1916,  by  F.  Kimball;  The  Life  and  Letters  of 
Charles  Bulfinch,  1896,  by  E.  S.  Bulfinch,  and  the  Journal  of  Latrobe, 
1905.  For  the  later  periods  there  is  little  besides  the  individual 
studies  of  Richardson  by  M.  G.  Van  Rensselaer,  1888;  of  McKim 
by  A.  H.  Granger,  1913;  and  of  Wright  by  C.  R.  Ashbee,  1911. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
EASTERN   ARCHITECTURE 

The  East  is  a  world  which,  as  we  now  realize,  long  surpassed 
Christian  Europe  in  enlightenment,  as  well  as  in  wealth  and 
extent.  With  its  great  religions  and  philosophies,  there  have 
flourished  architectural  styles  of  corresponding  duration  and 
complexity.  In  comparison  with  Western  styles  generally, 
these  have  been  less  concerned  with  problems  of  structure  and 
more  with  abstract  problems  of  repetition  and  combination 
of  forms.  A  notable  characteristic  is  the  degree  to  which 
each  Eastern  people  has  held  fast  to  its  own  artistic  traditions 
under  the  most  varied  political  and  religious  supremacies. 
Nevertheless  artistic  influences  have  not  failed  to  pass  back 
and  forth  between  the  Eastern  peoples,  as  well  as  between 
the  Orient  and  the  Occident,  so  that  there  has  been  everywhere 
a  varied  historical  development.  Two  main  currents  may  be 
distinguished,  one  in  the  Far  East  embracing  India,  China, 
and  their  dependent  countries,  the  other  in  the  Near  East, 
embracing  Persia  and  the  other  countries  which  ultimately 
came  under  the  sway  of  Mohammedanism. 

Development  of  architecture  in  the  Near  Easi.  Sassanian  art. 
In  return  for  its  heritage  from  the  preclassical  civilization  of 
the  Levant,  Greece  endowed  the  Asiatic  empires  of  Alexander 
and  his  successors  with  a  Hellenistic  art,  which  extended  even 
beyond  their  borders.  When  the  Parthian  rulers  (130  B.C. — 
226  A.D.)  overran  Mesopotamia,  they  adopted  the  Greek 
columnar  system.  With  the  rise  of  the  new  Persian  empire 
under  the  Sassanian  dynasty  (227-641  A.D.),  however,  the  tide 
of  art  once  more  began  to  flow  from  East  to  West.  The 
subterranean  vaults  and  occasional  domes  of  ancient  Mesopo- 
tamia were  taken  as  the  basis  of  a  consistently  vaulted  style. 


573 

In  such  instances  as  the  palace  at  Ctesiphon  (Fig.  308),  with 
its  great  elliptically  arched  hall  and  facade  of  blank  arcades, 
this  achieved  new  effects  both  monumental  and  decorative. 
In  other  cases  the  dome,  supported  over  a  square  room  by 
means  of  diagonal  arches  or  squinches,  was  a  notable  feature. 
In  its  westward  expansion  this  virile  art  contributed  largely, 


FIG.   308 — CTESIPHON.      ROYAL   PALACE.      (DIEULAFOY) 

as  we  have  seen,  to  the  formation  of  the  Byzantine  systems  of 
construction  and  ornament. 

Mohammedan  architecture.  General  development.  The 
Sassanian  empire  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  sudden  expan- 
sion of  Mohammedanism.  In  a  few  years  from  the  flight  of  its 
prophet  from  Mecca  (622),  his  followers,  obeying  his  injunc- 
tion to  spread  their  faith  by  the  sword,  conquered  Mesopo- 
tamia (637),  Egypt  (638),  Persia  (642),  northern  Africa  and 
Spain  (711).  At  first  Mohammedan  architecture  in  these 
regions  was  little  else  than  the  art  of  the  different  conquered 
peoples  adapted  to  the  worship  and  the  customs  of  the 
conquerors.  In  Syria,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Spain  the  Romano- 
Byzantine  column  and  arch  were  employed  for  the  construction 


574        A  HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

of  buildings  such  as  the  mosque  of  Amru  at  Cairo  (642),  or 
the  great  mosques  of  Damascus  and  Cordova  (785-848).  In 
Mesopotamia  and  Persia  the  domed  and  vaulted  halls  of  the 
Sassanians  were  adopted  as  prominent  features  of  the  designs. 
Besides  the  uniformity  of  the  programs,  however,  a  certain 
community  of  artistic  character  between  different  regions  soon 
developed — a  character  pronouncedly  Oriental.  This  was  due 
in  part  to  the  taste  and  the  traditions  of  the  Arabs  themselves, 
but  more  largely  to  the  earlier  conquest  of  the  Eastern  lands, 
the  prestige  of  these  as  the  seat  of  the  early  caliphates  of 
Damascus  and  Bagdad,  and  the  vitality  of  Eastern  art  as  the 
general  source  of  inspiration  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  Thus 
the  lace-like  incised  carving  of  Mschatta  in  Syria,  which  had 
earlier  contributed  to  Byzantine  development,  now  appeared 
in  the  earliest  Arab  monuments  of  Africa  and  Spain.  Thus, 
too,  the  pointed  arch,  common  in  Persia  from  the  eighth 
century,  appeared  in  Syria  and  Egypt  from  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth.  The  tall  dome  of  pointed  silhouette,  and  the  court 
with  vaulted  halls  abutting  it — also  Persian  features — pene- 
trated Egypt  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The 
conquest  of  northern  India  and  its  conversion  to  Mohamme- 
danism opened  the  way  for  Persian  influence  there  in  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  while  Persia  itself  then  borrowed 
from  India  the  ogee  arch  and  the  bulbous  dome.  With  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Ottoman  Turks  (1453), 
finally,  began  a  new  return  influence  of  Byzantine  architecture 
in  their  Oriental  empire,  through  the  imitation  of  Hagia  Sophia, 
which  became  the  chief  mosque  of  the  Turkish  caliphs.  The 
development  of  the  various  schools  which  resulted  from  the 
mingling  of  local  traditions  and  distant  influences  continued 
uninterruptedly  until  the  eighteenth  and  even  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  has  been  checked  only  by  internal  disorganization 
and  by  the  conquests  of  European  powers. 

Mosques.  The  outward  observances  of  the  Mohammedan 
religion  are  simple — prayer,  made  facing  in  the  direction  of 
Mecca,  and  preceded  by  purifying  ablution.  For  their  formal 
places  of  worship,  the  mosques,  the  early  believers  naturally 
adopted  the  peristylar  court — the  universal  scheme  of  the 
Levant — the  porticoes  of  which  furnished  shelter  from  the 
tropical  sun.  The  mirhab,  a  small  niche  in  the  outer  wall, 


EASTERN  ARCHITECTURE 


575 


indicated  the  direction  of  Mecca,  and  on  this  side  of  the  court 
the  porticoes  were  deepened  and  multiplied.  This  funda- 
mental scheme  is  seen  in  the  first  great  mosque  built  after  the 
conquest  of  Egypt,  the  mosque  of  Amru  at  Cairo  (Fig.  310). 


FIG.   309 — CORDOVA.      INTERIOR   OF    MOSQUE 


The  tendency  was  to  develop  the  deeper  side  of  the  court  into 
an  inclosed  building — often  of  vast  extent,  as  at  Cordova 
(Fig.  309) — with  aisle  after  aisle  of  columns  and  arcades, 
carrying  wooden  beams  and  a  terrace  roof.  In  later  western 
mosques  the  aisle  leading  to  the  mirhab  was  widened,  and  a 
special  sanctuary  was  created  in  front  of  it.  In  Persia  a  great 
domed  sanctuary  preceded  by  a  vast  open  nave  or  niche  was 


576-        A  HISTORY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

early  adopted,  and  corresponding  features  were  introduced  at 
the  other  cardinal  points  of  the  court.  The  Egyptian  mosques 
based  on  Persian  models,  such  as  the  mosque  of  Sultan 
Hassan  (1377),  have  a  court  so  reduced  that  these  features 
occupy  the  greater  part  of  each  side,  and  the  scheme  becomes 


FIG.    310 — CAIRO.      MOSQUE   OF   AMRU.      PLAN 


cruciform.  On  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  Hagia  Sophia — 
with  its  atrium,  its  main  building  to  the  east,  its  great  central 
nave,  and  its  eastern  apse — was  found  perfectly  adapted  to 
Mohammedan  worship.  It  was  copied  almost  literally  in  the 
Mosque  of  Suleiman  at  Constantinople  (1550).  In  other 
Ottoman  mosques  the  possible  variants  were  used,  especially 
the  scheme  of  a  central  dome  with  four  abutting  half  domes, 
which  the  Byzantines  themselves  had  not  developed.  Among 
minor  elements  of  the  mosques,  which  are  yet  among  their 
most  striking  features,  are  the  minarets,  or  slender  towers, 
with  corbeled  balconies  from  which  the  muezzin  gives  the 


Copyright  by  H.  C.  White  Co. 
FIG.   311 — GRANADA.      THE   ALHAMBRA.      COURT   OF   LIONS 


578 


A   HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 


call  to  prayers.  These  were  erected  at  one  or  more  of  the 
corners  of  the  buildings,  ingeniously  incorporated  with  it. 
Their  forms  varied  much  in  different  regions,  the  Ottoman 
form,  with  a  very  tall  cylindrical  shaft  ending  in  a  slender 
cone,  being  especially  daring. 

Palaces.     The  enjoyment  of  worldly  goods  and  pleasures 
was  not  despised  by  Mohammedanism,  and  the  absolute  power 


FIG.    312 — AGRA.      THE  TAJ    MAHAL 


and  vast  revenue  of  the  caliphs  enabled  them  to  gratify  their 
taste  for  splendor  and  luxury  by  the  construction  of  magnificent 
palaces.  In  these  the  customs  of  the  Orient  demanded  a 
jealous  seclusion  from  the  outer  world,  and  a  strict  separation 
of  the  men's  quarters  and  reception-rooms  from  the  private 
apartments  of  the  women  and  children,  the  harem.  The 
rooms  were  distributed  about  one  or  more  courts,  the  fagades 
made  as  blind  as  possible,  except  for  loggias  and  balconies 
high  above  the  ground  and  guarded  by  latticed  screens.  To 
relieve  the  heat  of  the  climate,  the  courts  were  surrounded  by 
shady  porticoes  and  provided  with  basins  and  fountains.  A 


EASTERN  ARCHITECTURE  579 

complex  axial  system  governed  the  relations  of  the  principal 
rooms  and  the  courts.  The  luxurious  elegance  sometimes 
attained  is  well  seen  in  the  Alhambra  at  Granada,  built  by  the 
last  Mohammedan  rulers  of  Spain,  chiefly  in  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  Court  of  Lions  (Fig.  311),  with 
its  slender  columns,  its  delicate  stalactite  decoration  in  stucco, 
colored  and  gilded,  shows  Mohammedan  architecture  in  the 
final  development  of  one  of  its  local  schools,  when  the  elements 
of  diverse  origin  had  been  fused  in  a  characteristic  whole. 

Tombs.  In  Egypt,  in  Persia,  and  especially  in  India,  the 
tombs  of  great  monarchs  rival  the  palaces  and  mosques.  The 
Indian  type  was  a  domed  mausoleum,  set  in  the  midst  of  a 
garden.  The  most  noted  example  is  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra 
(Fig.  312),  built  by  Shah  Jahan  in  1630,  in  which  the  central 
dome  is  flanked  by  four  smaller  domes,  and  the  principal, 
minor,  and  diagonal  axes  are  marked  on  the  exterior  by  great 
arches  expressively  and  harmoniously  proportioned. 

Forms  of  detail.  The  Mohammedan  builders  were  con- 
fronted by  few  structural  problems  for  which  solutions  had 
not  already  beeru  found  by  late  Roman,  Byzantine,  and 
Sassanian  architecture.  At  first,  like  the  early  Christian 
builders,  they  employed  borrowed  classical  columns  and 
capitals,  supporting  impost  blocks  and  stilted  arches.  Their 
early  domes  rested  on  squinches.  Later  their  treatment  of 
fundamental  structural  elements,  such  as  the  arch  and  the 
vault,  was  governed  by  decorative  conceptions.  In  Spain 
and  Africa  arches  were  given  a  horseshoe  shape  or  were  cusped ; 
in  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Spain  vaults  were  treated  with  a 
multitude  of  small  squinches  resembling  stalactites.  Stalac- 
tite motives  were  also  used  in  some  capitals,  although  in  others 
modified  Corinthian  motives  were  used,  much  as  in  the  most 
expressive  Gothic  examples.  The  ornamentation  depended 
little  on  effects  of  bold  relief,  but  greatly  on  effects  of  line,  of 
material,  and,  above  all,  of  color.  The  prohibition  against 
representing  man  and  animals,  with  the  mathematical  bent  of 
the  Arabs,  resulted  in  a  geometrical  ornament  of  interlacing 
figures,  extraordinarily  fertile  and  intricate.  Precious 
materials  were  freely  used;  in  Persia  whole  buildings  were 
faced  with  colored  and  glazed  faience  in  patterns  suggested 
by  rugs  and  textiles. 


580        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Development  of  architecture  in  the  Far  East.  Long  before  the 
Christian  era,  the  Chinese  and  the  Aryan  population  of  India 
had  each  adopted  the  basic  constructive  elements  and  the 
religious  symbolism  of  architectural  systems,  which  persistent 
conservatism,  coupled  in  China  with  ancestor- worship,  has 
preserved  to  this  day.  Each  employed  at  the  start  a  structure 
of  wood,  with  posts,  beams,  and  brackets — the  Indian  roofs 
being  of  thatch,  the  Chinese  roofs  of  curved  tile.  In  China 
wooden  construction  has  remained  typical;  in  India  there 
early  developed  a  stone  construction,  likewise  based  on  the 
beam  and  bracket,  with  the  similar  devices  of  the  corbeled 
arch  and  vault.  Characteristic  of  both  countries  was  the 
multiplication  of  similar  decorative  elements,  graduated  in 
size  and  subtly  varied  in  arrangement,  in  combinations  of 
overwhelming  decorative  effect.  As  dynasties  rose  and  fell, 
as  foreign  conquerors  of  less  developed  culture  established 
themselves,  as  religious  systems — Brahmanist,  Jain,  and 
Buddhist  in  India,  or  Confucianist,  Taoist,  and  Buddhist  in 
China — succeeded  or  transformed  each  other,  the  native 
architectural  systems  were  steadily  adapted  to  the  prevailing 
programs,  without  fundamental  changes  of  style.  Inner 
historical  growth  there  was,  indeed,  and  influence  of  one 
system  or  another.  Mohammedan  India  adopted  the  pointed 
arch  with  radiating  joints  from  Persia,  and  China  modified  the 
pagoda,  in  some  instances,  on  suggestions  from  the  Indian 
spire  or  sikhara.  In  the  main,  however,  these  changes  and 
influences  were  not  bound  by  creed  or  dynasty,  so  that  shrines 
of  different  sects  were  built  simultaneously  and  side  by  side, 
in  a  style  essentially  one — not  Buddhist,  Brahmanist,  or 
Mohammedan,  but  Indian  or  Chinese.  The  outlying  regions 
were  dominated  by  the  influence  of  the  great  cultural  centers. 
Thus  Java  developed  in  the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries 
a  notable  art  based  on  Indian  models,  and  had  its  own  influence 
on  the  art  of  the  Khmers  in  Cambodia.  Japan  was  inspired 
by  China,  and,  undisturbed  by  invasion,  carried  on  and 
preserved  tendencies  which  succumbed  in  China  itself. 

India.  The  basic  feature  of  Indian  religious  buildings  was 
the  stupa,  a  hemispherical  tumulus  or  dome,  which  was  first 
used  as  a  grave  monument  and  thus  gained  religious  associa- 
tions. In  the  early  Buddhist  chapter-houses  at  Ajanta  (second 


EASTERN   ARCHITECTURE  581 

and  first  centuries  B.C.),  the  stupa  served  as  an  altar  or 
reliquary,  standing  in  the  apse-like  end  of  a  hall,  with  a 
colonnade  following  the  sides  and  encircling  the  apse.  The 
domical  form  of  the  stupa  was  also  employed  as  the  crowning 
feature  of  the  shrines  of  Siva,  the  destructive  aspect  of  the 
Brahmanist  trinity,  while  for  those  of  the  complementary 


FIG.    313 — KHAJURAHO.      TEMPLE   OF   VISHNU 


preservative  aspect,  Vishnu,  the  form  adopted  was  the  spire- 
like  sikhara.  These  are  the  principal  elements  of  the  great 
medieval  temples  of  India,  of  which  the  shrine  of  Vishnu  at 
Khajuraho  (Fig.  313)  with  its  vast  bud-like  sikhara,  its  vesti- 
bule and  symbolic  porches,  its  wealth  of  carved  ornament,  ic 
a  typical  example.  When  the  Mohammedans  conquered  In- 
dia their  art  had  already  absorbed  Indian  elements,  and  no 
radical  change  was  necessary  in  methods  of  construction  and 
composition.  The  Siva  dome,  stripped  of  its  sculptured 
symbolism,  became  the  dome  of  the  mosque.  The  temple 
platform  was  preserved,  and  the  small  sikharas  which  marked 


582        A  HISTORY   OP  ARCHITECTURE 

its  corners  became  minarets,  as  in  the  Taj  Mahal.  Thus  the 
traditions  of  Indian  craftsmanship  remained  unbroken  until 
the  importation  of  European  ideals  by  the  English. 

Java.     Java  felt  the  influence  of  Indian  movements  at  later 
dates  than  India  itself,  so  that  its  Buddhist  monuments  date 


FIG.    314 — JAVA.      THE   CHANDI    MENDOOT.       (SCHELTEMA) 


from  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  centuries,  its  Brahmanist 
shrines  mostly  from  the  subsequent  period.  Both  were  com- 
posed of  the  typical  Indian  elements.  Sometimes  the  ensemble 
was  also  of  Indian  character,  as  there  was  a  pyramidal  chapel 
with  a  porch  in  front,  like  the  Chandi  Mendoot  (Fig.  314). 
Sometimes,  however,  the  general  arrangement  was  more 
characteristically  Javan,  depending  on  the  repetition,  around 
a  central  monument,  of  small  shrines  all  alike,  often  in  great 
numbers.  This  was  the  system  at  the  great  temple  of  Boro- 
Budur  (ninth  century),  where  the  large  central  stupa,  of  bell 
shape,  was  surrounded  by  smaller  bells  in  three  terraces, 
themselves  supported  on  a  pyramid  of  six  steps  with  many 
hundreds  of  niche-like  shrines. 


EASTERN   ARCHITECTURE 


583 


Cambodia.  In  Cambodia  there  arose,  under  Indian  and 
Javan  influence,  the  civilization  of  the  Khmers,  whose  empire 
flourished  especially  from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries. 
Although  it  borrowed  certain  forms,  such  as  the  Javanese 
system  of  an  assemblage  of  satellite  shrines,  its  developed 
architecture  was  markedly  different  from  anything  in  India 
and  Java.  As  seen  in  the  city  and  palace  of  Angkor  Thorn  or 


FIG.    315 — ANGKOR   WAT.      SOUTHWEST   ANGLE   OF   THE    PORTICOES 


in  the  temple  of  Angkor  Wat  (Fig.  315),  the  style  involved  vast 
ensembles  governed  by  an  elaborate  system  of  rectangular  axes, 
with  lakes  and  moats,  causeways  of  approach,  tall  straight 
stairways  leading  to  elaborate  gateways  flanked  by  long 
porticoes,  and  a  multiplication  of  sikhara-like  towers  with  rich 
pointed  silhouettes.  The  fine  limestone  freely  available  was 
laid  up  with  exquisite  precision,  without  mortar,  and  carved 
with  endless  sculptures  in  relief  and  in  the  round,  in  which 
the  serpent-head  motive  was  conspicuous.  Especially  charac- 
teristic was  the  fine  restraint  and  sense  of  structural  fitness  in 
20 


584        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 


the  piers  and  capitals  of  porticoes  and  gateways,  which  accord 
with  the  classical  canons  of  the  West  as  do  few  other  structures 
of  the  Orient. 

China.  Unlike  the  West,  and  even  unlike  India,  China  has 
steadily  retained  wood  as  a  material  for  monumental  struct- 
ures. The  single  hall  of  wood  has  remained  the  fundamental 

element  of  even  the 
largest  temples.  As  a 
result  China  has  car- 
ried construction  in 
wood  to  a  degree  of 
elaboration  and  expres- 
siveness comparable 
with  that  of  the  great 
systems  of  masonry 
construction  elsewhere. 
The  essential  scheme 
consists  of  columns, 
with  arm-like  brackets, 
supporting  a  beam  sys- 
tem and  widely  over- 
hanging hip-roof,  which 
by  the  mode  of  its  con- 
struction acquires  nat- 
urally a  slight  upward 
curve  at  the  angles. 
If  the  span  is  great, 
one  or  more  lines  of 
interior  supports  are 

introduced,  creating  an  encircling  aisle  or  series  of  aisles, 
each  with  its  own  roof  and  section  of  vertical  wall  (Fig. 
316).  A  similar  effect  was  produced  by  buildings  in  more 
than  one  story,  for  each  story  was  shaded  by  overhanging 
eaves.  When  the  stories  were  multiplied  there  was  produced 
the  pagoda,  often  erected  as  a  feature  of  a  temple,  but  usually 
as  a  commemorative  monument.  Pagodas  were  also  built  of 
stone,  in  which  case  the  roofs  between  the  stories  were  reduced 
to  decorative  string-courses,  and  sometimes  the  whole  struct- 
ure was  given  more  the  character  of  an  Indian  sikhara.  The 
Chinese  houses  and  palaces,  of  isolated  halls  grouped  in  an 


FIG.  316 — PETCIN.      THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN 


586         A   HISTORY    OF  ARCHITECTURE 

inclosure,  were  accompanied  by  gardens  of  a  naturalistic 
style,  with  miniature  mountains,  lakes,  and  bridges.  Note- 
worthy also  are  the  vast  works  of  fortification,  the  walls  and 
gates  of  the  cities,  and,  above  all,  the  Great  Wall  of  China, 
twelve  hundred  miles  long,  first  erected  as  an  earthen  rampart 
in  the  third  century  B.C.,  and  rebuilt  in  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  with  walls  and  towers  of  stone. 

Japan.  Chinese  architecture  was  brought  to  Japan  by  the 
Buddhist  missionaries  of  the  seventh  century.  The  hall  and 
pagoda  of  the  period  at  Horiuji  are  purely  Chinese.  Soon, 
however,  the  Japanese  were  able  to  make  characteristic  modifi- 
cations, in  the  direction  of  greater  discretion  and  elegance.  In 
the  Fujiwara  period  (898-1186),  these  qualities  were  at  their 
height,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  subtle  and  delicate  Phenix-hall 
at  Uji  with  its  sanctuary  flanked  by  porticoes  and  pavilions 
(Fig.  317).  Later  the  system  of  bracketing  became  more 
complex,  but  carving  was  still  almost  wholly  absent  until  the 
Tokugawa  period  (1587-1867),  when  ostentatious  exuberance 
replaced  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  earlier  times.  Sculpture, 
lacquered  and  gilded,  disguised  the  structural  members;  the 
roofs  were  given  fantastic  curvatures  and  loaded  with  orna- 
ment. Such  was  the  prevailing  style  when  the  opening  of  the 
ports  to  European  trade.(i854)  brought  the  flood  of  Western 
artistic  ideas,  which  have:  tended,  for  the  moment  at  least, 
to  submerge  the  native  art  of  Japan. 


PERIODS  OF  EASTERN  ARCHITECTURE 

The  Near  East. 

Sassanian  architecture,  227-641  A.p. 

Palace  at  Firouzabad. 

Palace  at  Sarvistan. 

Palace  at  Ctesiphon. 

Mohammedan  architecture,  622  A.D.-date. 
Syria  and  E;^ypt. 

Mosque  of  Amru  at  Cairo,  642. 

Mosque  at  Damascus,  begun  707. 

Mosque  of  Ibn  Touloun  at  Cairo,  878. 

Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan  at  Cairo,  1356. 

Tomb  of  Kait  Bey  at  Cairo,  1472-76. 


EASTERN  ARCHITECTURE  587 

Spain. 

Great  mosque  at  Cordova,  begun  770. 

Alcazar  at  Seville,  1199-1200,  restored  1353. 

Alhambra  at  Granada,  begun  1230:    Gate  of  Justice,  1337; 

Court  of  Lions,  1354. 
Mesopotamia  and  Persia. 

Cathedral  mosque  at  Ispahan,  760-70,  remodeled  in  sixteenth 
century. 

Tomb  of  Zobeide  at  Bagdad,  831. 

Imperial  Mosque  at  Ispahan,  1612-28. 
India. 

Qutb  Minar  at  Delhi,  c.  1200. 

Buildings  at  Fathpur-Sikri,  1560-1605. 

Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  1630. 
Ottoman  Empire. 

Mosque  of  Suleiman  at  Constantinople,  1550. 

Mosque  of  Sultan  Ahmed  I.  at  Constantinople,  1608-15. 

Mosque  of  Mehemet  Ali  at  Cairo,  1815. 
The  Far  East. 

Indian  architecture. 

Cave  temples  at  Karle  and  Ajanta,  second  and  first  centuries 

B.C. 

Kailasa  temple,  Ellora,  eighth  century  after  Christ. 

Temples  at  Khajuraho,  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries. 
Javan  architecture. 

Temple  of  Boro-Budur,  ninth  century. 
Cambodia,  Khmer  architecture. 

City  and  palace  of  Angkor  Thorn,  ninth  century. 

Temple  of  Angkor  Wat,  twelfth  century. 
Chinese  architecture. 

Great  Wall,  third  century  B.C.,  rebuilt  in  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries. 

Rock  temples  of  Lungmen,  seventh  century. 

Pagoda  of  Porcelain  at  Nankin,  1412-31. 

Temple  of   Heaven,   Pekin,  eighteenth   century,   rebuilt   in 

nineteenth  century. 
Japanese  architecture. 

Early   temple   buildings   at   Horiuji,   beginning   of   seventh 
century. 

Phenix-hall  at  Uji,  eleventh  century. 

Temple  of  lyeasu,  Nikko,  seventeenth  century. 


588        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

The  most  comprehensive  general  work  on  Eastern  architecture  is 
F.  Benoit's  V architecture:  V orient  medieval  et  moderne,  1912,  which 
is  provided  with  very  full  bibliographical  lists.  H.  Saladin's  volume, 
L' architecture,  1907,  in  the  Manuel  d'art  musulman  (vol.  i),  covers 
Mohammedan  architecture  in  more  detail.  Works  in  English  cover- 
ing Mohammedan  architecture  in  special  regions  are  S.  L.  Poole's 
The  Art  of  the  Saracens  in  Egypt,  1886;  A.  F.  Calvert's  Moorish 
Remains  in  Spain,  1906,  and  The  Alhambra,  1904;  and  E.  B.  Havell's 
Indian  Architecture  .  .  .  from  the  First  Mohammedan  Invasion  to 
the  Present  Day,  1913.  The  art  of  the  Far  East  is  dealt  with  generally 
in  J.  Fergusson's  History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture,  revised 
by  J.  Burgess  and  R.  Phene  Spiers,  2  vols.,  1910.  This  should  be 
supplemented  by  special  works  embodying  more  recent  views,  such 
as  E.  B.  Havell's  The  Ancient  and  Medieval  Architecture  of  India, 
1915;  O.  Munsterberg's  Chinesische  Kunstgeschichte,  2  vols.,  1910-12, 
and  Japanische  Kunstgeschichte,  3  vols.,  1904-07;  J.  F.  Scheltema's 
Monumental  Java,  1912;  and  R.  A.  Cram's  Impressions  of  Japanese 
Architecture,  1905. 


Abacus.    The  chief  or  uppermost  member  of  a  capital. 

Absidiole.     A  small,  apse-like  structure  frequently  used  as  a  chapel. 

Acanthus.     An  ornament  derived  from  the  conventionalized  leaves 

of  the  acanthus  plant. 
A  crater  ion.     In  classic  architecture,  an  ornament  placed  upon  the 

corners  and  the  peak  of  a  pediment. 
Adobe.     Unburnt,  sun-dried  brick. 
Adyton.    An  inner  sanctuary  in  some  Greek  temples,  housing  the 

image. 

Agora.    A  Greek  public  square  or  market-place. 
Aisles.     One  of  the  divisions  in  a  building  divided  longitudinally 

by  colonnades  or  lines  of  piers,  especially  one  of  the  side  divisions, 

often  lower  than  the  central  division. 

Alice.     A  garden  path  or  avenue,  usually  bordered  by  trees. 
Alternate  system.     A  term  applied  to  an  architectural  system  wherein 

a  simpler  pier  alternates  with  a  more  complex  one. 
Ambone.     A  pulpit,  especially  that  found  in  basilican  churches. 
A  mbulatory.     A  passageway  in  a  building,  especially  the  passageway 

around  the  apse. 
Amphiprostyle.     A  term  applied  to  a  temple  having  columns  across 

both  front  and  rear,  but  not  along  the  sides. 

Amphora.     A  long   pot  with  a  narrow  neck,  usually  of  terra  cotta. 
Annular  vault.     A  ring-shaped  vault. 
Anta  (pi.  antes).     The  end  of  a  wall  which  carries  a  lintel,  treated 

with  a  pilaster-like  projection. 
Anthemion.     The  Greek  honeysuckle  ornament. 
Apodyterium.    The  dressing-room  of  a  Roman  bathing-establish- 

ment. 

A  pse.     A  recess  of  semicircular  or  polygonal  plan,  covered  by  a  semi- 
dome  or  other  vault;  especially  the  semicircular  termination  of 

the  choir  of  a  church. 
Aqueduct.     A  conduit  or  channel  for  conducting  water,  especially 

one  supported  on  masonry  arches. 

Arabesque.     An  ornament  of  a  capricious  or  fanciful  character,  con- 
sisting of  foliage,  flowers,  figures,  etc. 


59o         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Arcade.     A  series  of  arches  resting  on  piers  or  columns. 

Arch.  A  structural  device  to  span  an  opening  by  means  of  small 
stones  or  brick.  In  the  "true"  arch  these  are  wedge-shaped 
blocks,  or  voussoirs. 

"  Arch  order."  In  classic  architecture,  the  system  of  enframing  arches 
by  columns  and  entablatures. 

Archiepiscopal  cross.  A  cross  with  two  transverse  arms,  the  longer 
one  nearer  the  center. 

Architrave.     A  lintel,  usually  with  horizontal  bands  or  molding?. 

Archivolt.  A  molded  band  like  an  architrave,  carried  around  a 
curved  opening. 

Ashlar.  Squared  and  finished  building -stone. 

Atlas  (pi.  Atlantes).     A  male  figure  used  as  a  support. 

Atrium.  In  Roman  architecture,  the  principal  room  in  the  early 
house.  In  more  elaborate  buildings,  a  court  partly  open  to  the 
sky.  In  Christian  ecclesiology,  the  open  court  before  the  nar- 
thex  of  a  basilica. 

Attic.     A  pedestal -like  feature  or  story  above  the  cornice  of  a  building. 

Attic  base.  A  molded  column  base  consisting  of  two  convex  moldings, 
or  toruses,  with  a  hollow,  or  scotia,  between. 

Axis.  The  central  line  of  a  symmetrical  or  other  balanced  com- 
position. 

Baluster.  An  upright  member  used  to  support  a  railing;  usually 
urn-shaped  or  with  some  other  swelling  contour. 

Bar  tracery.  Tracery  composed  of  thin  bars  of  stone,  joined  together 
on  the  principle  of  the  arch. 

Barrel  vault.     A  semi-cylindrical  vault,  or  one  approaching  this  shape. 

Basilica.  In  Roman  architecture,  an  oblong  covered  hall,  often  sub- 
divided by  columns  or  piers,  devoted  to  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness and  the  administration  of  justice.  In  Christian  architect- 
ure, an  early  Christian  church  of  similar  form,  composed  with 
reference  to  a  longitudinal  axis. 

Basilican.  Like  a  basilica  in  having  longitudinal  rows  of  columns, 
or  a  raised  clerestory. 

Battlement.  An  indented  parapet  behind  which  archers  could  shelter 
themselves. 

Bay.  Originally  an  opening  between  two  columns  or  piers.  By 
extension  one  compartment  or  division  of  a  building  which  con- 
sists of  several  such  divisions. 

Bed-molding.     The  molding  or  suite  of  moldings  supporting  a  cornice. 

Be/roi.  In  France  and  Flanders,  the  civil  or  communal  bell  tower 
as  opposed  to  the  docker  of  the  church.  In  medieval  military 
parlance  the  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  movable  towers 
used  in  attacking  walled  fortifications. 


GLOSSARY  591 

Belt-course.     See  Sir  ing-course. 

Bema.     The  rudimentary  transept  which  gave  the  T-shaped  form  to 

the  early  Christian  basilica. 
Billet   mold.     A   molding   consisting   of   short,   broken,    cylindrical 

members,  arranged  with  their  axes  parallel  to  that  of  the  molding. 

Especially  common  in  Norman  Romanesque  architecture. 
Blind  arcade.     An  arcade  applied  to  the  face  of  the  wall  so  that  no 

actual  openings  appear. 
Bouleuterinn.     The  Greek  council-house. 
Broken  pediment.     A  pediment  in  which  the  raking  cornice  is  broken 

through. 
Buttress.     A  support  against  lateral  thrust;    especially,  a  member 

projecting  at  right  angles  to  a  wall,  designed  to  receive  such  a 

thrust. 

Caldarium.     The  hot -room  in  a  Roman  bathing-establishment. 
Campanile.     A  word  applied  in  Italy  to  a  bell  tower,  engaged  or  free 

standing. 

Capilla  mayor.     The  great  chapel,  nearly  filling  the  apse  and  block- 
ing the  view  of  the  ambulatory,  commonly  found  in  Spanish 

churches. 
Capital.     The  topmost  member  of  a  column,  distinguished  from  the 

shaft  by  distinct  architectural  treatment. 
Cartouche.     An  ornament  of  irregular  or  fantastic  form,  inclosing  a 

field  sometimes  decorated  with  armorial  bearings,  etc. 
Caryatid.     A  female  figure  used  as  a  support. 
Casino.     A  small  pleasure-house,  especially  in  an  Italian  villa. 
Catacombs.     Extensive  underground  burial  passages  and  vaults. 
Cathedra.     The  bishop's  chair  in  the  early  Christian  church,  com- 
monly placed  at  the  back  of  the  apse  on  the  longitudinal  axis 

of  the  building. 

Catholicon.     In  Greek,  a  bishop's  cathedral  church. 
Cavetlo.     A  molding  having  the  form  of  a  quarter-hollow. 
Cella.     The  essential  or  principal  chamber  of  a  temple. 
Centering.    A  timber  framework  on   which  the  masonry  of  an  arch 

or  vault  is  supported  until  the  key  is  in  place,  rendering  the  whole 

self-supporting. 
Chamfer.     The  cutting  away  of  the  square  edge  of  an  ordinary 

architectural  member. 
Chancel.     The  portion  of  a  church  in  the  east  end,  railed,  and  set 

.apart  for  the  use  of  the  clergy. 
Chapel  of  the  Virgin.    A  chapel,  dedicated  to  the  use  of  the  Virgin,  and 

usually  extending  beyond  the  apse  on  the  long  axis  of  the  church. 
Chevet.    A  term  applied  to  the  complicated  east  end  of  the  French 

cathedral. 


592         A   HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

Chevron.     A  V-shaped,  or  zigzag  ornament. 

Choir.  Primarily  the  part  of  the  church  where  the  singers  are  ac- 
commodated. The  arm  of  the  cross  between  the  transept  and 
the  apse. 

Ciborium.  A  canopy,  generally  of  marble  and  supported  on  columns, 
over  the  altar  of  an  early  Christian  church.  The  term  is  often 
applied  in  Italy,  however,  to  the  chiseled  receptacle  in  which 
the  consecrated  wafers  are  kept. 

Circus.  In  Roman  architecture,  a  course  for  horse  and  chariot 
races;  in  England  a  circular  or  semicircular  open  space  sur- 
rounded by  houses. 

Clerestory.  A  part  of  a  building  which  rises  above  the  adjacent 
roofs,  permitting  it  to  be  pierced  with  window  openings. 

Cloister.     A  court  surrounded  by  an  ambulatory,  usually  arcaded. 

Cloister  vault.     A  square  or  polygonal  dome. 

Coffer.     A  sunk  panel  or  compartment  in  a  ceiling,  vault,  or  soffit. 

Collegiate  church.  A  church  that  has  a  college  or  chapter,  with  a 
dean,  but  not  a  bishop's  see. 

Colonnade.  A  series  or  range  of  columns,  usually  connected  by 
lintels. 

Colonnettc.     A  diminutive  column. 

"  Colossal  order."  An  order  running  through  more  than  one  story  of  a 
building. 

Column.  A  circular  supporting  member,  usually  with  a  base  and 
capital. 

Concrete.  An  artificial  stone  composed  of  an  aggregate  of  broken 
stone  or  other  small  materials,  held  together  by  a  binding 
material  or  cement. 

Console.  A  bracket  or  corbel,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  scroll  of  re- 
verse curvature. 

Corbel.  A  bracket  of  masonry,  projecting  from  a  wall  and  used  as  a 
support. 

Corbel  table.  A  projecting  course  of  masonry  carried  on  corbels, 
often  connected  by  arches. 

Corbeled  arch.  An  arch  built  up  of  horizontal  courses,  each  project- 
ing over  the  one  below. 

Cornice.  A  projecting  horizontal  member  which  crowns  the  wall  of  a 
building;  any  molded  projection  of  similar  form. 

Coro.  The  elaborate  choir,  at  times  almost  an  independent  building, 
commonly  placed  to  the  west  of  the  transept  in  a  Spanish 
cathedral. 

Coupled.     A  term  applied  to  columns  or  pilasters  grouped  in  pairs. 

Cour  d'honneur.     An  entrance  court,  open  on  one  side. 

Court.     An  inclosed  space  within  a  building  or  connected  with  it. 


GLOSSARY  593 

Crocket.     A  projecting  piece  of  carving,  usually  foliate,  commonly 

used  to  decorate  the  edge  of  a  gable  or  the  sloping  ridges  of  a 

spire  in  Gothic  architecture. 
Cromlech.     A  type  of  prehistoric  monument  composed  of  a  circle  of 

stones. 
Crossing.     The  space  in  a  cruciform  church  at  the  intersection  of 

nave  and  transepts. 
Crypt.    A  story  beneath  the  pavement  of  a  church,  commonly  used 

for  the  keeping  of  relics. 
Cupola.    A  dome  or  lantern. 

Curia.     The  building  in  which  the  Roman  Senate  held  its  delibera- 
tions. 
Cusp.     A  point  of  the  small  arcs  or  foliations  decorating  the  intrados 

of  an  arch,  or  of  tracery. 
Cyclopean.     A  term  applied  to  early  masonry  of  very  large  blocks, 

unhewn  or  irregular. 
Cyma.    A  molding  having  a  reverse  curve  in  profile.     In  the  cyma 

recta  the  thin  concave  portion  projects;   in  the  cyma  reversa, 

the  convex  portion. 

Dado.    A  continuous  pedestal  or  wainscoting  around  the  base  of  a  wall. 
Dentils.     Small  projecting  blocks,  suggesting  teeth,  forming  part  of 

the  support  of  a  cornice. 
Diaconicon.     Originally  the  place  where  the  deacons  kept  the  vessels 

for  the  church  service.     A  room  on  the  south  side  of  the  building 

which  became  the  sacristy  of  the  later  church. 
Dog-tooth.     An   angular,   tooth-like    molding,   commonly  found   in 

Norman  Romanesque  architecture. 

Dolmen.     A  pair  of  stone  blocks  with  a  covering  slab,  used  of  pre- 
historic monuments. 
Dome.     A  hemispherical  vault;  an  exterior  feature  based  on  such  a 

vault. 
Domed  basilica.     The  term  applied  to  the  form  of  basilica,  especially 

in  the  East,  when  one  or  more  bays  are  covered  with  a  dome. 
Donjon.     A  tower-like  structure,  usually  free  standing,  the  strongest 

part  of  the  European  medieval  castle. 
Dormer.     A  window  projecting  from  the  slant  of  a  roof. 
Drum.     The  cylindrical  or  polygonal  vertical  wall  on  which  a  dome 

or  cloister  vault  frequently  is  placed. 
Ear.     A  projecting  corner  of  a  molded  architrave. 
Echinus.     The  convex  member  of  a  capital,  supporting  the  abacus 

and  having  a  parabolic  or  hyperbolic  profile. 
Enceinte.     In  military  architecture,  the  wall  or  rampart,  usually 

with  bastions  or  towers  and  curtain  walls,  which   surrounds  a 

fort  or  city. 


5Q4         A   HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

Engaged  column.     A  column-like  member  projecting  from  a  wall  and 

frequently  actually  a  part  of  the  wall  masonry. 
Entablature.     That  part  of  a  lintel  construction  which  rests  on  the 

columns  and  extends  upward  to  the  roof  or  to  the  beginning  of 

a  story  or  attic  above. 

Entasis.    A  slight  swelling  in  the  profile  of  a  column. 
Exedra.     In  classical  architecture,  an  open  platform,  often  semi- 
circular,  provided   with   seats:    in   Christian  architecture   an 

apse  or  niche. 
Extrados.     The  external  surface  of  the  voussoirs  or  stones  composing 

an  arch  or  vault. 
Faqade.    One  of  the  fronts  of  a  building,  especially  the  principal 

front. 
Fascia.     A  long  flat  band  or  belt,  usually  forming  part  of  a  suite 

of  moldings,  of  which  it  is  usually  the  widest  member. 
Fan  vault.     The  vault,  in  English  Perpendicular  Gothic,  shaped  like 

an  inverted,  concave  cone,  and  suggesting  by  its  spreading  ribs 

the  appearance  of  an  open  fan. 

Fenestration.     The  disposition  of  windows  in  a  building. 
Fillet.    A  narrow  flat  member  accompanying  a  molding  or  suite  of 

moldings. 
Finial.     In  Gothic  architecture,  the  bossy,  knob-like  ornament,  of 

foliate  design,  usually  placed  at  the  point  of  a  spire  or  pinnacle. 
Fleche.     A  very  lofty  and  slender  spire-like  structure,  used  especially 

in  France  to  mark  important  parts  of  a  building,  like  the  crossing. 
Flute.    A  groove,  usually  segmental  or  semicircular  in  plan. 
Flying  buttress.     A  buttress  composed  of  an  arch  or  a  series  of  arches, 

which  carries  the  thrust  of  a  vault  over  the  aisle  or  aisles  of  a 

church  to  a  solid  pier  built  at  the  outer  wall. 
Forum.     The  market-place  of  a  Roman  city. 
Foyer.    A  lobby  or  saloon  for  promenade  in  a  theater. 
"French  order."     An  order  with  rusticated,  fluted  columns. 
Fresco.     Wall  painting,  in  mineral  colors,  applied  to  a  plaster  wall 

while  the  plaster  is  still  moist,  and  permitted  to  dry  in  with  the 

plaster. 

Fret.    An  ornament  of  continuous  bands  or  fillets  arranged  in  rect- 
angular forms. 
Frieze.     A  longitudinal  band  of  extended  length,  often  decorated  with 

sculpture;   specifically,  such  a  band  in  an  entablature,  between 

the  architrave  and  cornice. 

Frigidarium.     The  cool-room  of  a  Roman  bathing-establishment,  con- 
taining the  cold  plunge-bath. 
Gable.     The  end  of  a  ridged  roof,  with  the  generally  triangular  wall 

between  its  eaves  and  the  apex. 


GLOSSARY  595 

Gargoyle.  A  water  spout,  usually  grotesquely  carved,  designed  to 
cany  water  from  the  gutter  and  throw  it  clear  of  the  wall  of  the 
building. 

Greek  cross.    A  cross  of  four  equal  arms  meeting  at  right  angles. 

Grille.  A  grating  of  any  sort,  but  most  commonly  of  iron  work  or 
perforated  stone  slabs. 

Groin.  The  edge,  or  arris,  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  barrel 
vaults. 

Groin  vault.  A  compound  vault,  in  which  two  barrel  vaults  inter- 
sect, forming  edges  or  arrises  which  are  called  groins. 

Gutta.  A  drop;  one  of  a  series  of  pendent  ornaments  generally  in 
the  form  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone,  but  sometimes  cylindrical,  at- 
tached to  the  under  side  of  a  mutule  or  other  architectural 
feature. 

Gynaccea.  The  galleries,  usually  in  the  triforium,  commonly  ar- 
ranged in  basilicas  of  Eastern  character,  for  the  segregation  of 
women. 

Half-limber.  A  type  of  construction  consisting  of  a  framework  of 
timber  with  a  filling  of  brick  or  clay. 

Hallenkirche.  A  type  of  German  Gothic  church  in  which  the  aisles 
are  as  high  as  the  nave,  eliminating  the  clerestory  and  giving  the 
building  the  appearance  of  a  great  hall. 

Herm.  A  head  or  bust  supported  on  a  quadrangular  base  corre- 
sponding roughly  in  mass  to  the  absent  body. 

Hexastyle.     Having  six  columns  across  the  front. 

Hippodrome.  In  Greek  architecture,  a  place  in  which  horse  and 
chariot  races  were  run. 

Hip-roof.  A  roof  in  which  the  ends  as  well  as  the  sides  are  inclined, 
so  that  its  planes  meet  in  diagonal  lines  or  hips. 

Hypcethral.     Roofless — a  term  applied  to  some  temple  cellas. 

Hypostyle.     Having  its  ceiling  supported  by  columns. 

Impost.     A  horizontal  member  at  the  springing  of  an  arch  or  vault. 

In  antis.  A  term  applied  to  columns  embraced  between  the  ends  of 
two  walls  of  antae. 

Intercolumniation.  The  space  or  distance  between  two  columns  of  a 
colonnade. 

Interlacing  arches.  Two  series  of  arches  arranged  to  intersect  each 
other. 

Intrados.     The  inner  face  of  an  arch  or  vault. 

Keystone.  The  term  applied  to  the  topmost,  wedge-shaped  stone 
or  voussoir  in  an  arch,  usually  the  last  to  be  placed,  which  ren- 
ders the  whole  secure. 

Khan.  The  service  quarters  of  an  Oriental  dwelling ;  also  an  Oriental 
inn. 


Sg6        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Laconicum.     A  vapor  bath  in  a  Roman  bathing-establishment. 
Lantern.     A  cupola  or  tower-like  structure  rising  above  a  dome  or  the 

roof  of  a  building,  and  having  openings  in  its  faces' by  which  the 

interior  is  lighted. 
Lanterne  des  marts.     An  ornamental  stone  shaft  erected  in  the  Middle 

Ages  to  signalize  the  presence  of  a  cemetery. 
Lararium.     A  small  shrine  in  a  Roman  dwelling  where  the  Lares,  or 

household  gods,  were  worshiped. 

Latin  cross.     The  commonest  form  of  cross,  in  which  one  arm  is  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  other  three. 
Lierne.     A  small  subordinate  rib,  inserted  between  two  main  ribs 

of  a  vault. 

Lintel.     A  horizontal  beam  spanning  an  opening. 
Loge.     A  box  or  compartment  in  the  auditorium  of  a  theater. 
Loggia.     A  gallery  in  a  building  open  on  at  least  one  side,  on  which 

side  is  an  arcade  or  colonnade. 
Machicolation.     An  opening  in  the  floor  of  a  projecting  gallery  for 

the  purpose  of  dropping  missiles,  etc. 
Mastaba.     A  flat -topped,  bench -like  Egyptian  tomb  used  by  the 

nobles  of  the  Old  Kingdom. 
Mausoleum.     A  large  and  elaborate  tomb. 
Meander.     See  Fret. 

Megalithic.     Composed  of  very  large  stones. 
Megaron.     The  large  hall  of  an  ^Egean  or  Greek  dwelling,  generally 

oblong  in  shape  and  sometimes  subdivided  by  one  or  more  longi- 
tudinal ranges  of  supports. 
Menhir.     A   single   standing   pillar  of  stone,   used   of   prehistoric 

monuments. 

Metope.     The  space  between  two  triglyphs  in  a  Doric  frieze. 
Mezzanine.     A  story  of  diminished  height  introduced  between  two 

higher  stories  or  created  by  subdividing  a  high  story. 
Minaret.     In  Mohammedan  architecture,  a  slender  and  lofty  turret, 

having  one  or  more  projecting  balconies. 

Mirhab.    The  niche  in  a  mosque  which  indicates  the  direction  of  Mecca. 
ModUlion.     A  bracket,  often  carved  with  spiral  scrolls,  serving  to 

support  a  cornice. 

Module.     A  unit  or  common  divisor  of  the  dimensions  of  a  building. 
Monolithic.     Composed  of  a  single  stone. 
Mosaic.     Decoration    composed   of   tesserae  or   cubes  of  glass   or 

marble,  set  in  mortar,  in  geometric  or  pictorial  designs. 
Mosque.     A  Mohammedan  place  of  worship. 
Mullion.     A  slender,  vertical,  intermediate  upright,  forming  part 

of  a  framework,  dividing  an  opening,  and  commonly  helping  to 

support  the  glass. 


GLOSSARY  597 

Mutule.    A  projecting  block  on  the  soffit  of  a  Doric  cornice. 
Naos.     The  essential  or  principal  chamber  of  a  Greek  temple;   the 

cella. 
Narthex.    A  covered  vestibule  of  one  or  more  stories,  usually  open 

and  colonnaded  at  the  front,  placed  before  a  building,  and 

especially  common  in  the  early  Christian  period. 
Nave.     That  part  of  a  church  nearest  the  entrance,  constituting 

the  long  arm  in  a  Latin  cross,  appropriated  to  the  laity.     The 

chief  central  division  of  the  building,  the  central  space  between 

the  colonnades,  as  opposed  to  the  aisles. 

Niche.     A  recess  in  a  wall,  usually  semicircular  and  semicircular- 
headed,  often  used  for  the  reception  of  statuary. 
Obelisk.     A  tapering  shaft  of  rectangular  plan,  generally  with  a 

pyramidal  apex. 

Octastyle.     Having  eight  columns  across  the  front. 
Odeion.     In  Greek  architecture,  a  covered  building  for  musical  and 

oratorical  contests. 
Ogee  curve.    A  double  S  curve  especially  common  in  Flamboyant 

Gothic  architecture. 

Opisthodomos.     An  open  vestibule  at  the  rear  of  a  temple  cella. 
Opus  alexandrinum.     An  elaborate  geometrical  mosaic  of  marble 

slabs  and  tesserae. 
Opus  francigenum.     "French  work,"  the  word  first  applied  by  the 

Germans  to  Gothic  architecture. 
Opus  incertum.     A  Roman  method  of  facing  concrete  walls  with 

irregular  fragments. 
Opus  reiiculatum.     A  Roman  method  of  facing  concrete  walls  with 

small   square   blocks   standing   on   their   corners   in   diagonal 

lines. 
Opus  spicatum.     A  Roman  method  of  facing  concrete  walls  with 

kernel-shaped  fragments  laid  in  herring-bone  pattern. 
Orchestra.     In  Greek  theaters,  the  circle  of  the  dance;    in  modern 

theaters,  the  space  for  the  musicians,  or  the  parquet. 
"Order."     In  classical  architecture,  a  recognized  system  of  forms  for 

the  column  and  entablature. 
"Organic  architecture."   A  vaulted  architecture  in  which  the  vaults  are 

supported  by  ribs,  piers,  and  buttresses  arranged  with  direct 

reference  to  the  needs  of  supporting  the  vaults  and  opposing  their 

thrusts. 

Ovolp.     A  convex  molding  approaching  a  quarter-circle  in  profile. 
Pagoda.     In  Chinese  and  Japanese  architecture,  a  sacred  tower  in 

several  stories. 
Palastra.     A  building  or  inclosure  devoted  to  wrestling,  boxing,  and 

kindred  gymnastic  exercises. 


SQ8         A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Palladian  motive.     A  central  arch  resting  on  the  entablatures  of  lat- 
eral square-headed  bays. 
Parapet.    A  breast  wall  placed  at  the  edge  of  a  platform,  terrace, 

balcony,  etc. 

Parterre.     A  garden  of  beds  with  intervening  gravel  or  turf. 
Patio.     In  Spain  or  Spanish  America,  a  court  in  a  house,  open  to  the 

sky. 
Pavilion.     A   central,   flanking,   or  intermediate   subdivision   of   a 

monumental   building  or  facade,   accented   architecturally   by 

projection  or  otherwise. 
Pedestal.     A  base  or  support  for  a  column  or  building,  usually  having 

its  own  capital  and  base  moldings. 
Pediment.     A  low  triangular  gable  bounded  by  a  horizontal  cornice 

and  raking  cornices. 
Pendentive.     An  inverted,   triangular,   concave  piece  of  masonry, 

placed    upon   a   pier   to   support   a   section   of  a   dome.     In 

mathematical  terms,  a  segment  of  a  hemisphere  the  diameter 

of  which  is  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  the  square  or  polygon 

to  be  covered. 
Penetration.     In  vaulting,  a  surface  intersecting  the  main  vaulting 

surface  to  permit  lateral  openings  to  be  raised  above  the  line  of 

its  springing. 
Peristyle.     A  continuous  surrounding  colonnade,  either  around  the 

exterior  of  a  building  or  the  interior  of  a  court. 
Piano  nobile.     The  principal  floor  of  an  Italian  house,  above  the 

ground  story. 
Pier.     A  masonry  member  acting  as  a  support,  distinguished  from  a 

column  by  greater  massiveness,  by  a  shape  other  than  circular, 

or  by  being  built  of  coursed  masonry. 
Pier  buttress.     A  solid  pier  of  masonry  built  immediately  adjacent  to 

a  vault  to  resist  its  thrust. 
Pilaster.     A  flat  rectangular  member,  projecting  slightly  from  the 

face  of  a  wall,  and  furnished  with  a  capital,  base,  etc.,  in  the 

manner  of  a  column. 
Pilaster  strip.     A  slender  engaged  pier-like  member  in  a  wall,  used 

in  medieval  architecture  as  a  stiffener  or  rudimentary  buttress. 
Pillar.    A  loosely  used  term  denoting  an  isolated  vertical  mass  of 

masonry,  used  as  a  support.     In  architecture,  applied  to  a  sup- 
port which  is  neither  a  pier  nor  a  column  in  the  strict  sense  of 

those  words. 
Plate  tracery.     Tracery   composed   of  openings   pierced   in   a   thin 

tympanum  of  stone,  as  contrasted  with  bar  tracery. 
Plinth.     A  rectangular  block  usually  serving  as  a  base. 
Podium.     A  continuous  pedestal. 


GLOSSARY  599 

Portcullis.     A  sliding  barrier  or  grating  to  cut  off  access  to  a  gate  or 

passage. 
Portico.     An  open  porch  or  vestibule  having  its  roof  supported  by 

columns  or  piers. 
Presbyterium.     That  part  of  a  church  devoted  to  the  clergy,  in  which 

the  high  altar  is  placed  and  which  forms  the  eastern  termination 

of  the  choir.     It  is  generally  raised  a  few  steps  above  the  rest  of 

the  church. 

Pronaos.     A  vestibule  in  front  of  the  cella  of  a  Greek  temple. 
Propylceum  (pi.  propylcea).     In  Greek  architecture,  an  elaborate  en- 
trance gateway  with  a  portico  or  porticoes. 
Proskenion.     In  the  Greek  theater,  a  wall  or  series  of  piers  before 

the  skene,  carrying  a  platform  which  served  as  a  stage  for  some 

or  all  of  the  actors. 
Prostyle.    A  term  applied  to  a  temple  or  pavilion  having  columns 

across  the  front  only. 
Prothesis.    A  chapel  or  room  on  the  north  side  of  the  early  Christian 

church;   the  prototype  of  the  vestry. 
Puhinated.     Swelling  or  bulging  out;   a  term  applied  to  a  frieze  of 

curved  section. 

Pylon.     A  monumental  gateway  to  an  Egyptian  temple;   any  gate- 
tower  of  classical  design. 
Pyramid-mastaba.     An  Egyptian  tomb  having  the  form  of  a  mastaba 

with  a  small  pyramid  on  top. 
Quadriga.     A  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses. 
Quadripartite  vault.     A  groin  vault,  generally  ribbed,  composed  of 

four  cells. 

Quoins.     Stones  or  blocks  reinforcing  the  angle  of  a  building.    • 
Raking  cornice.     The  sloping  moldings  of  a  pediment. 
Ramp.     An  inclined  plane  rising  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level,  taking 

the  place  of  steps. 
"Rhythmical  bay."    A  term  applied  to  a  continuous  alternation  of 

wide  and  narrow  bays. 
Rib.     A  masonry  arch,  generally  salient  from  the  vault  surface  and 

molded,  forming  part  of  the  skeleton  structure  on  which  the  vault 

rests. 
Ribbed  vault.     A  vault  of   masonry  with  a  comparatively  thin  web 

supported  by  ribs. 
Rocaille.     The  shell-work  or  scroll  ornament  characteristic  of  rococo 

decoration. 
Roof  comb.     In  Maya  architecture,  a  pierced  screen-wall  rising  above 

the  roof  of  a  building. 
Roundel.    A  circular  medallion. 
Rubble.    Masonry  of  stones  irregular  in  shape  and  size. 


600        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Rusticated  stone.  Stone  masonry  distinguished  from  smooth  ashlar 
by  having  the  joints  sunk,  and  sometimes  the  surface  of  the 
stone  roughly  or  bossily  finished. 

Sarcophagus.     A  stone  coffin,  usually  ornamented  with  sculpture. 

Saucer-dome.  A  dome  showing  on  the  exterior  only  the  upper  zone 
of  its  surface. 

Seance  from.  The  front  wall  of  the  skene,  forming  the  background 
of  the  stage,  usually  decorated  with  columns. 

Scale.     The  effect  of  size  produced  by  a  building  or  its  members. 

Scotia.     A  concave  molding  of  circular  plan. 

"Screens."  The  passage  across  one  end  of  the  hall  in  an  English 
manor  house. 

Sex  partite  vault.  A  groin  vault,  usually  ribbed,  and  provided  with  a 
transverse  rib  to  the  crown  of  the  vault,  which  divides  the  whole 
into  six  cells. 

Shaft.  The  main,  cylindrical  member  of  a  column.  An  upright 
member,  tall  and  comparatively  small  in  horizontal  dimensions, 
engaged  or  free  standing,  and  generally  used  as  a  support. 

Short  and  long  work.  Stones  embedded  alternately  horizontally  and 
vertically  in  the  masonry  at  a  wall  angle,  used  to  reinforce  the 
angle  and  especially  common  in  early  Saxon  architecture. 

Sikhara.     An  Indian  spire,  used  in  the  shrines  of  Vishnu. 

Skene.  In  the  Greek  theater,  the  building  containing  the  dressing- 
rooms,  the  front  of  which  served  as  a  background  for  the  action. 

Soffit.  The  under  side  of  an  architectural  member,  such  as  a  lintel 
or  arch. 

Spina.  The  barrier  dividing  a  race-course  longitudinally  into  two 
tracks. 

Spire.  A  lofty,  slender,  generally  octagonal  member  used  to  crown 
a  medieval  tower. 

Splay.  A  sloped  surface,  which  makes  an  oblique  angle  with  another, 
a  large  chamfer. 

Squinch.  A  slab  or  small  arch  thrown  across  the  angle  of  a  square  or 
polygon  to  render  its  shape  more  nearly  round,  to  receive  the 
base  of  a  dome. 

Stadion.     A  course  for  foot  racing,  six  hundred  Greek  feet  in  length. 

Staged  lower.     A  tower  built  in  several  receding  platforms  or  stages. 

Stalactite  vaulting.  Vaulting  composed  of  small  squinches  one  above 
another,  giving  the  appearance  of  stalactites. 

Steeple.     A  lofty  structure  attached  to  a  church  or  other  building. 

Stele.     An  upright  stone  employed  as  a  monument. 

Step-pyramid.  A  pyramidal  structure  consisting  of  diminishing  ter- 
races, forming  a  series  of  large  steps. 

Stereotomy.     The  science  of  stone-cutting. 


GLOSSARY  601 

Stilt.     To  raise  the  point  of  springing  of  an  arch  above  the  level 

of  a  capital  or  impost. 
Stilt-block.     A  block  above  a  capital  serving  to  support  an  arch  or 

vault. 
Sloa.     In  Greek  architecture,  a  long,  narrow  hall,  usually  divided 

longitudinally  by  columns,  and  having  an  open  colonnade  in 

place  of  one  of  the  side  walls. 
Strap-work.     Ornament    consisting    of    fillets,  or    bands,   imitating 

leather,  folded  or  interlaced. 
String-course.     A   horizontal   course   of   masonry,    usually   molded, 

marking  an  architectural  subdivision  of  a  building. 
Stucco.     Plaster  or  cement  used  as  a  coating  for  walls. 
Stupa.    A  hemispherical  tumulus  or  dome  characteristic  of  Indian 

architecture. 
Stylobate.    A  continuous  plinth  or  step  serving  as  a  common  base  to 

columns,  especially  those  of  the  Greek  Doric  order. 
Tabernacle.     A  pedimented  or  canopied  niche. 
Tablinum.    A  recess  or  apartment  at  the  back  of  the  atrium  in  a 

Roman  house. 

Tepidarium.     An  apartment  in  a  Roman  bathing-establishment  in- 
termediate  in   temperature   between   the   caldarium   and   the 

frigidarium. 

Terrace-roof.     A  roof  either  flat  or  with  barely  perceptible  inclination. 
Tessera.     Small  cubes  of  marble  or  glass,  used  in  the  composition  of 

designs  in  mosaic. 

Tholos.     In  Greek  architecture,  a  circular  structure  or  temple. 
Thrust.     The    outward    horizontal    force   exerted   by   an   arch   or 

vault. 
Tie-rod.     A  rod,  usually  of  iron,  set  in  the  masonry  of  an  arch  or  vault 

to  resist  its  outward  thrust. 
Tierceron.     A  secondary  or  intermediate  rib  in  a  vault,  springing 

from  the  pier  on  either  side  of  the  diagonal  rib. 
Torus.     A  molding  of  convex  profile,  approaching  a  semicircle,  used 

especially  in  bases. 
Trabeated  architecture.     Literally,  beamed  architecture,  the  term  is 

applied  to  the  post  and  lintel  or  horizontal  architectural  system, 

as  opposed  to  the  arched  or  arcuated  system. 
Transept.    A  large  division  of  a  church  lying  at  right  angles  to  the 

long  axis  of  the  building.     It  developed  probably  from  the  early 
•    Christian  bema. 
Transom  window.     A  window  divided  horizontally  by  a  bar  of  stone 

or  iron. 
Triclinium.     In  Roman  architecture,  the  dining-room,  furnished  with 

three  couches. 


602        A   HISTORY   OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Triconch  plan.  A  plan  ending  in  a  trefoil  or  clover-leafed  shape, 
common  in  Syria,  and  later  in  Carolingian  and  German  archi- 
tecture. 

Triforium.  A  blind  space  between  the  ceiling  and  the  lean-to  roof 
over  an  aisle ;  any  corresponding  division  below  a  clerestory. 

Tri glyph.  A  projecting  block  in  a  Doric  frieze,  marked  by  vertical 
grooves. 

Trophy.  A  monument  or  memorial  of  victory,  especially  one  con- 
sisting of  arms  and  other  spoils,  or  sculptures  representing  them. 

Truss.  A  combination  of  timbers  or  ironwork  so  arranged  as  to 
constitute  an  unyielding  frame  for  spanning  an  opening,  etc. 

Tudor  arch.  A  four-centered,  pointed  arch,  common  in  English 
Tudor  architecture. 

Tumulus.     A  sepulchral  mound. 

Vault  cell.  A  subdivision  of  a  vault,  the  part  defined  by  adjacent 
groins  or  ribs. 

Vault  web.  The  thin  infilling  of  masonry  composing  the  main  ex- 
panse of  a  rib-vault,  supported  by  ribs. 

Velarium.  An  awning  stretched  over  the  seats  of  a  Roman  theater  or 
amphitheater. 

Veneer.  A  thin  facing  of  wood  or  other  material  which  has  or- 
namental qualities  and  overlays  the  structural  material  of  a 
building. 

Volute.     A  spiral  scroll. 

Voussoir.  One  of  the  wedge-shaped  stones  used  in  the  construction 
of  an  arch  or  vault. 

Wall  shaft.  A  shaft,  in  the  thickness  of  a  wall,  dividing  an  opening 
into  two  or  more  parts.  Characteristic  of  early  Saxon  architect- 
ure. 

Wheel,  or  rose,  window.  The  circular  window,  divided  by  tracery, 
which  was  commonly  placed  in  the  west  end  of  a  Gothic  cathedral. 

Ziggurat.  A  Mesopotamian  religious  structure,  consisting  of  a  tall 
staged  tower  or  stepped  pyramid,  with  ramps  giving  access  to 
the  top. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

GENERAL   WORKS   RELATING   TO   THE   HISTORY   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

{For  works  covering  special  periods  see  the  note  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.) 

Among  earlier  comprehensive  histories  of  architecture  may  be 
mentioned  especially  the  following: 

F.  Kugler's  Geschichte  der  Baukunsl,  5  vols.,  1859-72.     Continued 


GLOSSARY  603 

by  J.  Burkhardt,  W.  Liibke,  and  C.  Gurlitt  as  Geschichte  der  neuern 
Baukunst,  4  vols.  in  6,  1887-1911. 

J.  Fergusson's  History  of  Architecture,  2  vols.,  1865-67;  2d  ed., 
4  vols.,  1873-76;  3d  ed.,  revised  by  R.  P.  Spiers  and  R.  Kerr,  5  vols., 
1891-93. 

J.  Durm's  Handbuch  der  Architektur,  Teil  II.  Die  Bauslile,  7  vols. 
in  12,  1881  to  date. 

A.  Choisy's  Histoire  de  V architecture,  2  vols.,  1899.  (A  study  of  the 
history  of  constructive  methods.) 

For  the  monuments  in  their  geographical  setting  see  the  guide- 
books of  Baedeker,  Murray,  etc  For  the  history  of  the  excavations, 
etc.,  see  A.  Michaelis's  A  Century  of  Arc/uzological  Discoveries,  1908. 

The  best  general  guide  to  the  literature  of  the  subject  is  furnished 
by  the  references  in  historical  works  such  as  those  just  named, 
especially  the  Handbuch  der  Architektur.  Mention  may  also  be  made 
of  the  classified  catalogues  of  special  libraries  or  general  libraries 
having  large  collections  on  architecture,  especially  those  of  the 
Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  London,  with  supplement, 
1898;  the  libraries  of  Manchester  and  Salford  (by  H.  Guppy  and  G. 
Vine),  1909;  and  the  Boston  Public  Library,  2d  ed.,  1914.  The 
most  complete  collection  of  books  on  architecture  is  that  of  the 
Avery  Library  of  Columbia  University,  New  York,  of  which  an 
alphabetical  catalogue  was  published  in  1895.  Similar  works  for 
Continental  libraries,  fuller  on  the  work  of  their  respective  countries, 
are  E.  Vinet's  Catalogue  de  la  bibliotheque  de  I'Ecole  de  Beaux-Arts, 
Paris,  ^873;  C.  v.  Lutzow's  Katalog  der  Bibliothek  der  Akademie  der 
bildenden  Kiinste  in  Wien,  1876;  Dobbert  and  Grohmann's  Katalog 
der  Bibliothek  der  Kgl.  Akademie  der  Kiinste  zu  Berlin,  1893. 


INDEX 


Note:  The  index  covers  references  in  the  text  and  illustrations,  the  presence  of  an 
illustration  being  indicated  by  a  page  reference  in  Italic  type.  All  buildings  are  listed 
alphabetically  under  the  towns  and  cities  where  they  are  located. 


Abacus,  58,  60,  64,  67 

Abadie,  Paul,  495 

Abbeville,  290.  296,  307,  309 

Abbiate  Grasso,  355 

Abydos,  temple  of  Seti  I.,  23 

Abutment,  in  Egyptian  architecture,  Ji; 
in  Mesopotamia,  25;  in  Roman  archi- 
tecture, 112;  in  Romanesque  architect- 
ure, 265  ff.;  in  Gothic  architecture,  290, 
291,  292 

Academic  architecture,  in  Italy,  402,  403, 
407-410,  413;  in  Spain,  420-421,  422; 
in  France,  422,  423,  424-430,  431-432, 
437;  in  England,  438-444,  448;  in  Ger- 
many, 452;  survivals  of,  465;  revival  of, 
487,  490,  491;  in  America,  536-540,  542- 
545.  555 

Academies,  Vitruvian,  403;  French.  424; 
of  architecture,  428;  French,  in  Rome, 
428 

Acanthus,  67,  68,  94,  377 

Acarnania,  73 

Achaeans,  37 

Achaemenian  architecture,  32-36 

Acroteria,  73 

Adam,  Robert,  462,  464 

Adam  style,  in  America,  558,  547,  550 

Administrative  buildings,  469-471,  498, 
546 

Adobe,  526,  527,  529,  530 

Adyton,  76,  80 

^gean  architecture,  37-42 

/Emilia,  temple  of  Aphaia,  63,  80 

yEolians,  51 

^tolia,  56 

Africa,  Roman  architecture  in,  143;  Mo- 
hammedan architecture  in,  573 

Agade,  26 

Agorae,  87 

Agra,  Taj  Mahal,  578.  579 

Agrigentum,  see  Akragas 

Aigues-Mortes,  324.  325 

Aix-la-Chapelle.  Charlemagne's  Chapel, 
189,  IQO,  196,  197,  212,  221 

Akragas,  52;  temples  at,  80;  temple  of 
Zeus,  70,  71,  86 

AJrthamar,  204 

Ala.  138 

Albany,  532 

Alberti.  Leon  Battista,  351-352,  366,  374, 
376.  377.  378,  403 

Alcibiades,  94 

Alcobaza,  314 


Alessi,  Galeazzo,  409-410,  419 

Alexander  the  Great,  33,  56 

Alexandria,  56-57;    Pharos,  57;   Serapeion, 

57 

A116es,  434,  446 
Altars,  9,  75,  86,   165 
Alternate  system  in  Lombard  Romanesque, 

228;    in  Norman  Romanesque,  256 
Amalienburg,  452 
Amateurs,  422-423,  536,  542 
Ambones,  165 
Ambulatories,  221,  293 
Amenhotep  III.,  21 
American  architecture,  524-571 
Amiens,  cathedral,  276,  280,  281,  283,  284, 

287,  290,  291,  292,  293,  294,  295,  296,  299; 

Saint  John's  Chapel,  307 
Ammanati,  Bartolomeo,  416,  418 
Amon,  temple  at  Karnak,  19,  20,  21;   tem- 
ple at  Luxor,  21 
Amphiprostyle  temple,  76 
Amphitheaters,  104,  127-128,  144 
Anatolia,    medieval    architecture   of,    171, 

176-177 

Ancy-le-France,  chateau,  382 
Ancyra,  St.  Clement's,  177 
Andalusia,  Gothic  architecture  of,  315 
Andalusia,   Pennsylvania,   549 
Anet,  Palace  chapel,  384,  386;   Mausoleum 

chapel,  386 
Angkor  Thorn,  583 
Angkor  Wat.  583 
Angouleme,  227,  252 
Anselm,  256 
Antse,  42,  71,  72,  76 
Anthemion,  83 
Anthemius  of  Tralles,  188 
Antioch,  56,  69 
Antiochus  IV.,  69 
Antoninus  Pius,  114 
Aosta,   143 

Apartment  houses,  435 
Apodyterium,  129 
Apollodorus,  120 
Appius  Claudius,  108 
Apse,  148,  292,  293,  294,  378 
Apsidal  chapels,  292 
Aqueducts,   104,   108.   131-132 
Aquitaine,    Romanesque    architecture    in, 

251  ff.;     Byzantine    influence    in,    202, 

251 

Arabesques,  377,  380,  387,  389 
Arch,  types  of,  4;  in  Egyptian  architecture, 


6o6 


INDEX 


12.  23;  in  Mesopotamia,  25;  in  Greek 
architecture,  57,  73;  in  Roman  archi- 
tecture, 104,  107,  108-109,  us,  146,  147; 
in  early  Christian  architecture,  163;  in 
Romanesque,  220,  240,  260;  in  Gothic, 
263,  288;  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
376 

Arch,  commemorative,  104,  122,  133-134; 
imitation  of,  351,  352.  438,  464,  466; 
horseshoe,  264,  579;  ogee,  574;  pointed, 
in  Romanesque  architecture,  240,  260; 
in  Gothic  architecture,  263,  288;  pointed, 
in  India,  586;  pointed,  in  Mohammedan 
architecture,  574;  triumphal,  see  Arch, 
commemorative 

Arch  order,  in  Roman  architecture,  no- 
112,  122,  125,  127,  146;  in  Renaissance 
architecture,  349,  351,  357,  366,  368,  370, 
372,  376,  379;  in  America,  538,  539 

Archeology,   460,  461-462 

Architect,  status  in  Egypt,  24;  in  Meso- 
potamia, 32;  in  Greece,  50;  in  Rome, 
109;  in  the  Renaissance,  345-346 

Architecture,  elements  of,   1-7 

Architrave,  Ionic,  65,  73 

Archivolt,  146 

Argos,  37 

Aries,  amphitheater,  128,  152,  247;  St. 
TrophJme,  248,  249 

Arlington,  549 

Armenia,  medieval  architecture  of,  195  -Jf., 
203  ff. 

Arris,  58 

Art  nouveau,  512,  514 

Arta.  St.  Basil's,  206,  215 

Artaxerxes  III.,  35 

Artois,  Gothic  architecture  in,  284 

Arts  and  Crafts  Exhibition,  513 

Ashmont,  All  Saint's,  5j<? 

Ashur,  27 

Ashurbanipal,  28,  30 

Asia  Minor,  Greek  architecture  in,  55-56, 
58,  95;  Roman  conquest  of,  109;  see  also 
Anatolia;  Ionia 

Aspendos,  theater,   126 

Assisi,  S.  Francesco,  319 

Assyria,   25,   27-30 

Asylums,  501,  550 

Athens,  50,  52-54,  55,  56,  58;  Acropolis,  81, 
97-98;  Antiquities  of  Athens,  462; 
Erechtheum,  54,  69,  71,  78,  83-84,  85; 
imitation  of,  474;  Little  Metropolis,  189, 
190,  200;  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  69, 
95;  imitation  of,  465,  546;  Odeion  of 
Herodes  Atticus,  92,  152;  Odeion  of 
Pericles,  91;  Parthenon,  53,  54,  61,  78, 
82,  84;  capitals  of,  63;  imitation  of,  469, 
546;  Propylaea,  54,  87;  imitation  of,  466; 
St.  Theodore,  200;  stadion,  92;  temple 
of  Athena  Nike,  54,  70,  77,  78,  83,  84; 
temple  of  Olympian  Zeus,  69;  theater 
of  Dionysus,  91;  "Theseum,"  80,  82; 
imitation  of,  469,  549;  Tower  of  the 
Winds,  imitation  of,  474 

Athens,  Ga.,  Hill  house,  549 

Atlantes,  69 

Atrium,  in  Roman  architecture,  107,  112, 
137.  138;  in  early  Christian  architecture, 
165 

Attic  base,  63,  144 

Attics,  408,  430,  435 

Attwood,  C.  B.,  556 

Augsburg,  Rathaus,  450 


Augusta  Praetoria,  143 

Augustus,  113,  127,  136,  141 

Austria,  Gothic  architecture  in,  321 

Autun,  254 

Auvergne,     Romanesque    architecture    in, 

249  ff- 

Auxerre,  267 

Avila,  fortifications,  268,  269,  323 
Axial  systems,  2,   105,  416,  436 
Aztec  architecture,  525-526 

Baalbek,   145-146,   154,  462 

Babylon,  26,  27,  30;  "Hanging  Gardens," 
30 

Babylonian  architecture,  26,  30-32 

Bagdad,  caliphate  of,   574 

Bagnaia,  Villa  Lante,  416,  417 

Bahr,  Georg,  451 

Balbus,  126  v 

Balconies,  in  Mohammedan  architecture, 
576,  578 

Ballu,  Theodore,  484,  503 

Baltimore,  cathedral,  550,  551;  St.  Mary's, 
551;  Washington  Monument,  546 

Balusters,  376 

Balustrades,  408 

Bamberg,  308,  311 

Banks,  472,  491,  498,  542,  545,  546 

Barcelona,  315 

"Baronial  style,"  479 

Baroque  architecture,  xxii,  361,  389,  392;  in 
Italy,  402,  403-407,  410-413;  in  Spain, 
421-422;  in  France,  422,  423-424,  437; 
in  England,  438,  448;  in  Germany,  450- 
451;  in  America,  528,  536,  537,  53»; 
revival  of,  487,  489,  490,  491,  494, 
495 

Barry,  Sir  Charles,  474,  480,  487 

Base,  3;    see  also  Attic  base 

Basil  L,   183,  208 

Basement,  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
360,  361;  in  Post-Renaissance  architect- 
ure, 426,  427,  430,  432,  434,  444;  in 
American  architecture,  540,  542,  544 

Basilican  type  of  building,  163;  in  the 
Renaissance,  348,  364-366;  in  post- 
Renaissance  architecture,  435,  442,  447; 
in  modern  architecture,  475;  in  America, 
529,  538 

Basilicas,  Roman,  104,  112,  120,  122,  141, 
148,  154;  Byzantine,  domed,  163  ff.,  177, 
193 

Bassffi,  temple  of  Apollo,  84,  118 

Bath,  England,  448 

Baths,  Greek,  92;  Roman,  128-129;  mod- 
ern, 498;  see  also  Therms 

"Battle  of  the  styles,"  482 

Battlements,   29,  478 

Bay  windows,  392,  393,  394 

Bayreuth,  Wagner  theater,  507 

Beads,  72 

Beak-molding,  72 

Beaulieu-les-Loches,  267 

Beauvais,  Basse-CEuvre,  223;  cathedral, 
293;  south  transept,  308;  St.  Etienne, 
229,  262,  263 

Becerra,  Francisco,  528 

Beckford,  William,  478 

Beffroi,  in  medieval  Flanders,  329 

Behrens,  Peter,  515,  516 

Belcher,  John,  491 

Belgium,  modern  architecture  in,  496,  514 

Bell,  Ingress,  492 


INDEX 


607 


Bema,   165 

Beni  Hasan,  tomb,  17,  22 

Bentley,  J.   P.,  492 

Berlin,  Brandenburg  Gate,  466;  cathedral, 
489;  Gothic  project,  483;  Old  Museum, 
474;  Reichstag,  489;  Royal  Opera,  452, 
473;  Royal  Palace,  451;  Royal  Theater, 
469,  470,  473,  474;  towers  of  the  Gen- 
darmenmarkt,  452;  turbine  factory,  516; 
Werderkirche,  483;  Wertheim  store,  510, 
SIS 

Bernini,  G.  L.,  411-412,  418,  426-427 

Berry  Hill,  549 

Bexley  Heath,  Red  House,  505 

Biddle,   Nicholas,  546,  549 

Billet  mold,  255,  256 

Biltmore,  552 

Bin-bir-Kilisse,    176,    177 

Birmingham,  law  courts,  492;  Town  Hall, 
542 

Blenheim  Palace,  442,  44 3,  444 

Blodget,  Samuel,  542 

Blois,  chateau,  380,  381;  Wing  of  Gaston 
d'Orleans,  425 

Boccador,   382 

Bodley,  G.  P.,  492 

Boileau,  L.  A.,  512 

Boisseree,  S.,  483 

Bologna,  St.  Francis,  319,  340 

Bordeaux,  Grand  Theatre,  464,  473 

Boro  Budur,  382 

Borromini,  Francesco,  412 

Bosra,  760,  162,  174 

Boston,  534;  Beacon  column,  544;  Faneuil 
Hall,  539;  Franklin  Crescent,  549;  Pub- 
lic Library,  554,  555;  St.  Paul's,  550; 
State  House,  543,  544;  Trinity  Church, 
552,  553 

Bouleuterion,  see  Council-house 

Bourges,  Maison  de  Jacques  Cceur,  331,  332 

Bournazel,  chateau,  382 

Brackets,  in  Par  Eastern  architecture,  580, 
584,  586 

Braisne,  St.  Yved,  309. 

Bramante,  Donato,  354-355.  358-361,  366, 
374-  375-376,  377.  378,  379 

Brescia,  Palazzo  Communale,  370 

Brick,  in  Mesopotamia,  25;  in  Roman 
architecture,  149-150;  in  post-Renais- 
sance architecture,  423,  436,  440,  446; 
in  modern  architecture,  482,  505;  in 
America,  532,  533.  54°.  S6o,  562 

Brick,  enameled,  32,  33 

Brick,  sun-dried,  in  Egypt,  21;  in  Meso- 
potamia, 25;  in  ^Egean  architecture,  40 

Bridges,  Greek,  73;  Roman,  104,  108,  131- 
132;  medieval,  335  ff.;  modern,  503 

Brittany,  Gothic  architecture  in,  285 

Broadleys,  513 

Bronze  age,  9-10 

Brosse,  Salomon  de,  424 

Brunelleschi,  Filippo,  344,  347-35O,  364- 
365.  366 

Brussels,  Palais  de  Justice,  496,  407;  Town 
Hall,  330.  338 

Buffalo,  Guaranty  (Prudential)  Building, 
561.  S63 

Bulfinch,  Charles,  544.  549 

Bullant,  Jean,  381,  382.  383,  423 

Bulls,  winged,  32.  33.  36 

Burgos.  314.  3iS 

Burgundy,  Romanesque  architecture  in, 
253  ff-:  Gothic  architecture  in,  285 


Btirklein,  488 

Burlington,  Lord,  443,  462 

Burnham,  D.  H.,  558 

Butterfield,  William,  482 

Buttress,   in   Roman  architecture,    131;   in 

Romanesque     architecture,     265  ff.;      in 

Gothic  architecture,  290,  291,  292 
Byzantium  architecture,  183-216;  influence 

of,    213,  250,  574;    revival  of,  492,   495, 

560 

"Byzantine  Renaissance,"  205  ff. 
Byzantine,  115;    see  also  Constantinople 

Caen,    Abbaye-aux-Dames     (La    Trinite), 

22Q,  257,  258,  266 
Caen,  Abbaye-aux-Hommes  (St.  Etienne). 

227,  223,  256,  257,  258,  266,  ZQO,  296 
Cahors,   Pont  Valentre,  336 
Cairo,    Mosque   of   Amru,    574,    575,    576; 

Mosque  of  Sultan  Hassan,  576 
Calah,  27 

Caldarium,  129,  130 
California,  529-530 
Caligula,   139 
Callimachus,  68 
Camarsac,  329 

Cambodia,  architecture  in,  580,  583 
Cambridge,  colleges,  485;    Trinity  College 

Library,  440 
Campania,  127 
Campaniform  capital,  22 
Campanili,  414 
Campbell,  Colin,  443 
Canada,  French  architecture  in,  530,  531 
Canals,  434,  446 
Candelabra,  377,  387 
Canopus,  139 
Canterbury,  303,  304 
Capilla  Mayor,  313 
Capitals,   Doric,   58-60,  62-64.  63;    Ionic, 

64-66;     Corinthian,    67-69;    Byzantine, 

185,  l&6ff.;    Romanesque,  268;    Gothic, 

297 

Caprarola,  castle,  409 
Caracalla,  114,  130 
Carcassonne,  La  Cite,  325 
Caria,  55 
Carolina,   533 
Carolingian  architecture,  220  ff.;  ornament, 

213 

Carthaginian  wars,  51,  55 
Cartouches,   390,  392,  411,  423,   426,   430, 

438 

Caryatids,  69 
Casamari,  317 
Cascades,  434 
Casements,  533 
Caserta,  palace,  414 
Casinos,  416 
"Castellated  style,"  478 
Castle  Howard,  442 
Castles,  325  ff. 
Catharine  II.,  466 
Cathedra,  165 
Cato  the  Censor,  112-113 
Caylus,  Comte  de,  462 
Cefalft,  239,  240 
Ceilings,    in    Greek   architecture,    73,    82; 

coffered,  386 
Cella,  76 

Centering,  32,  150,  185 
Central  type  of  building,   163;    in  Rome, 

170  ff.;   in  Syria,  173;   in  Anatolia,  176; 


6o8 


INDEX 


in  the  Renaissance,  350,  353,  355,  359, 
366-368,  386;  in  post-Renaissance  ar- 
chitecture, 405,  409,  414,  435;  in  Amer- 
ica, 529 

Certosa,  see  Pa  via 

Chaldaea,  26 

Chalgrin,  J.  P.,  466,  474,  500 

Chambers,  Sir  William,  478 

Chambery,  307 

Chambord,  chateau,  380 

Champagne,  Gothic  architecture  in,  285 

Chancel,  165 

Chandi  Mendoot,  582 

Chandler,  Richard,  462 

Chantilly,   hamlet,  483 

Chapel  of  the  Virgin,  in  French  Gothic,  229 

Chaqqua,  basilica,   154 

Charles  V.  of  Spain,  388 

Charles  VIII.  of  France.  380 

Charleston,  Exchange,  540;  Miles  Brewton 
house,  538;  St.  Michael's,  538;  St. 
Philip's,  538 

Charleval,  chateau,  384,  423 

Charlottesville,  University  of  Virginia,  545, 
548-549.  558 

Chartres,  cathedral,  292,  295,  296,  298, 
299,  3H 

Chateaux,  384,  432-434 

Cheops,   16;    see  also  Khufu 

Chephren,    16 

Chevet,  292,  293,  294 

Chicago,  Exposition,  556,  557,  564-565; 
Midway  Gardens,  565;  office  buildings, 
560 

Chichen  Itza,  524 

Chimneypieces,  423,  478,  538;  see  also  Fire- 
places 

Chimneys,  382,  394/479,  533,  534 

China,  Great  Wall,  586 

Chinese  architecture,  584-586;  influence  of, 
476,  487,  580,  586 

Chios,  Nea  Moni,  201 

Christianity,  adoption  of,  115 

Christian-Roman,    164-168 

Churches,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  159;  Renais- 
sance, 345,  364-368,  384-385;  post- 
Renaissance,  409,  414-415,  435,  447-448; 
modern,  474-475,  484-485,  490,  492, 
494-495;  American,  colonial,  533,  534- 
535,  536,  538;  American,  modern,  550, 
SSL  552 

Churriguera,  Jose,  421 

Churrigueresque,  421-422 

Ciborium,  165 

Circulation,  elements  of,  2 

Circuses,  104,  128;    in  town  planning,  448 

Cistercian  building,  influence  in  Italy,  285, 
317 

Cisterns,  in  Alexandria,  176;  in  Constan- 
tinople, 207  ff. 

Civil  War,  American,  552 

Clapboards,   534 

Classic  architecture,  40-158;  influence  of, 
154.  161.  344-345,  461-462 

Classicism,  444,  461-476;  in  Spanish 
America,  528,  530;  in  the  United  States. 
541-550 

Clerestory,  in  Egyptian  architecture,  23;  in 
Roman  architecture,  123,  124,  131,  148; 
in  medieval  architecture,  165 

Clerisseau,  C.  L.,  462,  466 

Clermont-Ferrand,  Notre  Dame-du-Port. 
240.  250.  259 


Clifford  Chambers,  446 

Cloister  vault,  378 

Cloisters,  530 

Cluny,  227,  229,  253 

Cochin,  C.  N.,  462 

Cockerell,  C.  R.,  490 

Coffers,   149,   150 

Cologne,  cathedral,  276,  309,  315;  Holy 
Apostles,  243,  247;  St.  Mary  of  the 
Capitol,  242,  244 

Colonial  architecture,  527-540;  revival  of. 
554.  556,  560 

Colossal  order,  537,  542,  547,  548 

Columbia,  capitol,  542 

Columns,  3;  Egyptian,  13,  22-23;  Meso- 
potamian,  32;  Persian,  36;  ^Egean,  41- 
42;  Greek,  49 

Columns,  coupled.  355,  419,  427,  442,  451; 
engaged,  71,  103,  355,  357.  361,  376,  539; 
rostral,  133;  rusticated,  363,  386.  401, 
410,  424;  triumphal,  114,  122,  133,  466, 
544,546;  twisted,  411,  412,  448;  see  also 
Orders 

Commercial  buildings,  472 

Como,  S.  Abondio,  233 

Compie'gne,  palace,  432 

Composite  order,  114,  145,  374 

Compostela,  Santiago,  263,  264 

Compton  Wynyates,  332 

Concert-halls,   474 

Concrete,  149,  150,  524,  526;  reinforced, 
504-505 

Connecticut,  colonial  architecture,  534 

Conservatories,  503-504 

Consoles,  in  Greek  architecture,  67;  in 
Roman  architecture,  144,  145-146;  in 
Renaissance  architecture,  361,  374;  in 
post-Renaissance  architecture,  403,  410, 
412,  419,  423.  435,  437,  447,  448;  in 
American  architecture,  536 

Constantia,   137 

Constantine,   124,   137,   183 

Constantinople,  115,  205,  574,  576;  Baths 
of  Zeuxis,  207;  Bin-bir-Direk  cistern, 
186,  208;  Blachernae,  208;  Cenourgion, 
208;  Cisterna  Maxima,  207;  Cisterna 
Pulcheria,  207  ff.;  fortifications  of  Man- 
uel Comnenus,  210;  Gul-djami  (St. 
Theodosius),  197;  Holy  Apostles,  193, 
194<  195.  197.  201;  Hagia  Sophia,  187, 
188,  189,  190,  191,  192,  193;  imitation 
of,  574,  576;  Hodja-Moustapha-pasha 
(St.  Andrew's),  195;  Kalender-hane- 
djami  (the  Diaconessa?) ,  195;  Kilisse- 
djami,  189,  199;  La  Nea  ("new  church" 
of  Basil  I.),  189,  198;  mosque  of  Sulei- 
man, 576;  palace  of  Constantine,  207; 
Pantocrator,  199;  Pentacoubouclon,  208; 
Sacred  Palace,  208,  209;  Chrysotriclin- 
ium,  210;  St.  Irene,  1 88;  SS.  Sergius  and 
Bacchus,  187,  188;  Stoudion  basilica, 
188;  Tekfour-Serai,  209 

Construction,  in  Egyptian  architecture,  23- 
24;  in  Roman  architecture,  149-150;  in 
Byzantine  architecture,  185;  in  Roman- 
esque architecture,  266 

Corbeled  arch,  4;  in  Egypt,  23;  in  ^Egean 
architecture,  37,  40-41;  in  Greek  archi- 
tecture, 73;  in  Mexico,  524;  in  India, 
580 

Cordova,  great  mosque,  574,  575 

Corinth,  108;    temple,  79,  82 

Corinthian  order,  Greek,  49,  56,  57,  67-69, 


INDEX 


609 


84,  85;  Roman,  109,  144-146;  in  the 
Renaissance,  374,  386 

Cornice,  5;  Egyptian,  23;  Doric,  58; 
Ionic,  64-65 

Coro,  313 

Corridors,  /)/)/| 

Cortona,   Domenico  da,   382 

Coucy,  278,  326,  327 

Council-house,  Greek,  57,  74.  89 

Counter-Reformation,  401,  414 

Cour  d'honneur,  464 

Courts,  i;  in  Egypt,  12,  23;  in  Meso- 
potamia, 25;  in  .(Egean  architecture,  38- 
39;  in  Renaissance  architecture,  359, 
361,  368,  384,  392;  in  post-Renaissance 
architecture,  415-416,  419,  424,  433,  434, 
/)/]/! 

Courts,  peristylar,  74,  93;  in  Egyptian 
architecture,  12;  in  Greek  architecture, 
74;  in  Roman  architecture,  120,  138;  in 
Mohammedan  architecture,  574,  578 

Craftsmanship,  481,  512,  532-533,  540-541 

Cram,  R.  A.,  559 

Creil,   288 

Crescents,  448,  540 

Crete,  .^Jgean  architecture,  37-42;  Gothic 
architecture,  286 

Cromlechs,  9 

Cronaca,  352-353 

Ctesiphon,  palace,  573 

Cubiculce,  138 

Cupolas,  442.  532,  536,  539 

Curia,  112 

Curvilinear  Gothic  in  England,  284,  304  JT., 
306 

Cusping,  579 

Cuvillies,  Francois  de,  452 

Cyclopean  masonry,  40 

Cyma,  71.  72,  73 

Cyprus,  Gothic  architecture  in,  286 

Cyrus,  30,  32,  33;   tomb  of,  36 

Dahshur,  pyramid  at,  16 

Dais.  392 

Damascus,  caliphate  of,  574;  Great  Mosque, 

S74 

Dance,  George,  472,  478 
Daouleh,   176 
Daphni,  201 
Darius,  palace  and  hall  of,  34,  35;   tomb 

of,  35 

Darmstadt,  Exposition  of  1901,  515-516 
Daulis,  the  Phokikon,  89 
Daumet,  Honored  495 
Dawkins.  462 

De  Caumont,  Arcisse  de,  484 
Decorated  Gothic  in  England,  284,  304  ff., 
Dehr-Ahsy,  177 
Delia  Porta,  Giacomo,  411 
Delorme,  see  L'Orme 
Delos,  52.  55.  95;    House  of  the  Trident. 

93.  04 
Delphi.     52,     56;      circular     temple,     85; 

precinct  of  Apollo,  95,  06;    monuments, 

95;    treasuries,  86 
Dentils.  65-67,  145 
Der-el-Bahri,  mortuary  chapel  of  Hatshep- 

sut.  iH.  22,  24 
Desgodetz,  Antoine.  462 
Diaconicon.  165,  221 
Didyma,  temple  of  Apollo,  55,  57,  66,  78,  85, 

118 
Diminution  of  columns,  3,  58 


Diocletian,  114,  115,  142 

Dog-tooth  molding,  256 

Dolmens,  9 

Dome,  in  Assyria,  31;  in  Roman  architect- 
ure, 118,  148;  in  Anatolia,  163,  177- 
179;  in  Byzantine  architecture,  191;  in 
Renaissance  architecture,  347-348,  358, 
366,  378-379;  in  post-Renaissance  period, 
405-406,  409,  412,  413.  421,  435,  44°- 
442,  447,  451,  452;  in  modern  architect- 
ure, 464,  471,  472,  475,  495;  in  American 
architecture,  542,  543,  545,  550,  556;  in 
Spanish  colonial  architecture,  529;  in 
Sassanian  architecture,  572-573;  in 
Mohammedan  architecture,  574,  575- 
576,  579 

Domestic  architecture,  Egyptian,  21; 
Babylonian,  26;  Greek,  74,  92-94; 
Etruscan,  107;  Roman,  112,  137-143; 
Byzantine,  211  ff.;  Gothic,  328,  333; 
Renaissance,  368-370,  384,  390,  392-394; 
post-Renaissance,  415-416,  432-435,  444- 
446;  modern,  475-476,  484-485,  491, 
492,  495;  American,  colonial,  533,  534, 
536,  538;  post-colonial,  547;  classical, 
547-55O;  modern,  556,  565 

Domitian,  134,  137,  141 

Doors,  Greek,  73;   Roman,  144 

Dorians,  37,  51,  74 

Doric  order,  Greek,  42,  49,  51,  52,  56, 
58-64,  59.  61,  63,  70,  72,  74,  79-84.  466, 
546;  Roman,  107-108,  109,  144;  in  the 
Renaissance,  374 

Dormers,  387,  394,  535 

Dresden,  488;  Court  Theater,  474,  488, 
480;  Frauenkirche,  451;  Z\*inger,  450, 
451 

Drops,    534 

Driibeck,  244 

Drum,  358,  379,  406,  435,  442 

Duban,  J.  F,,  493 

Dublin,  Four  Courts,  471;  Parliament 
House,  471 

Due,  J.  L.,  493,  504 

Du  Cerceau,  J.  A.,  381,  382,  383,  423 

Duilius,  133 

Du  Perac,  Etienne,  423 

Durham,  229,  260,  261,  301 

Dur-Sharrukin,  27,  28;  palace  of  Sargon, 
27,  28,  29-30 

Dutch  colonial  architecture,  531-532 

Earl's  Barton,  224 

Early  English  style  of  Gothic,  284.  303^". 

Ears,  73,  374.  419,  437.  448 

Eastern  architecture,  572-588 

Eaton  Hall,  478,  479 

Eaves,  108,  565 

Ecclesiastical    architecture,    importance   in 

medieval  art,  159;  in  Byzantine  art,  183; 

in  Romanesque  art,  219;    in  Gothic  art, 

279  ff. 

Echinus,  58,  60.  63-64 
Eclecticism,  460,  461,  485-499;  in  America, 

552-560 

Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  see  Paris 
Ecpuen,  chateau,  380,  384 
Edinburgh,  high  school,  467,  470;  National 

Monument.  469 
Egg  and  dart,  64,  72,  144,  151 
Egypt,  Assyrian  conquest,  15,  28;    Persian 

conquest,    33;     Roman   architecture   in, 

152;  early  Christian  architecture  in,  174- 


6io 


INDEX 


176;    medieval   architecture  of,  1*74  ff.' 

Mohammedan  architecture  in,   573-574, 

S75-S76,  579 
Egyptian  architecture.  11-24;   influence  of, 

82,  84.  467,  487 
"Egyptian  Hall,"  443 
Eisenach,  the  Wartburg,  268 
Elephantine,  21,  23 
Eleusis,  Hall  of  Mysteries,  86 
Elevators,  561 
Elizabeth,  391 

Elizabethan  houses,  392-394,  485,  534 
Ellis,  Harvey,  564 
Elmes,  H.  L.,  474 
Engineering.  Roman,  104 
England,  pre-Romanesque  architecture  in, 

213  ff.;  Romanesque  architecture  in,  259; 

Gothic     architecture     in,     285,     299^".; 

medieval  domestic  architecture  in,  332; 

Renaissance  architecture,   346,   391-394; 

post-Renaissance  architecture,  402,  438- 

450;    Functionalism,   504,  505,  513-515; 

Romanticism,  477-483;  classicism  in,  464, 

465,  467,  469;   eclecticism,  486-487,  490- 

493 

English  colonial  architecture,  532-540 
Ensemble,    in    Greek    architecture,   95;    in 

Roman  architecture,   143;    in  Byzantine 

architecture,  210  ff.;   in  the  Romanesque 

period,  268;  in  the  Gothic  period,  335 
Entablature,    Doric,  60,  161;    Ionic,  65-67, 

66 

Entasis,  58 
Ephesus,  temple  of  Artemis,  52,  55,  79,  85; 

theater,  go,  91 
Ephrata,  535 
Epidaurus,    55;     gymnasium,    92;     Tholos, 

67,  68,  69,  85,  145 
Epirus,  56 

Ernst  Ludwig  of  Hesse- Darmstadt,  515 
Esarhsddon,  27 
Escurial,  420,  421 
Etruscan  architecture,   106-108 
Etschmiadzin,  189,  195,  196 
European   type  of  plan,    10,   39;    see  also 

Greek  type  of  plan 
Exchanges,  472,  498 
Exedre,  95.  130,  131,  135 
Expositions,  498,  501 
Expression  in  architecture,  6;   of  character, 

499,  5O2,  506-509;    of  culture,  499,  500- 

501,502,509-516;  563-565;  of  structure, 

279,    281,    500,    502-506,    511-512,     556, 

560-563 
Ezra,  174,  181 

Facades,  development  of  in  Romanesque 
architecture,  266  ff.;  in  French  Gothic, 
2QO,  296;  in  English  Gothic,  301  ff. 

Factories,  501,  516 

Faience,  579 

Fan  vault  in  English  Gothic,  305  ff. 

Far  East,  architecture  in,  580-586 

Fergusson,  James,  503 

Ferro-concrete,  504-505 

Ferstel,  Heinrich  von,  483,  489 

Fiesole,  Badia,  365 

Fillets,  72 

Fireplaces,  534;    see  also  Chimneypieces 

Fireproof  construction,   505,   506;   561-562 

Fisher  von  Erlach,  J.  B.,  451,  486 

Flamboyant  Gothic,  284,  306  ff.;  influence 
of,  337 


Flanders,  Gothic  secular  architecture  in, 
329  ff.;  Renaissance  in,  390-391 

Flavian  emperors,  114,  146 

Fleche,  in  Gothic  architecture,  297 

Florence,  346,  347  ff.,  412;  Annunziata,  351; 
Badia,  tomb,  373;  Baptistry,  238,  270, 
348,  374;  Bargello,  334,  340;  cathedral, 
276,  280,  319,  320,  340,  347,  348,  378; 
Giotto's  campanile,  320,  340;  Laurentian 
Library,  403-405,  419;  Loggia  dei  Lanzi, 
347;  Palazzo  Medici-Riccardi,  350,  351, 
372,  373;  Palazzo  Pandolfini,  361,  372, 
374,  376,  375;  Palazzo  Pitti,  350,  371. 
372;  cornice,  373;  court,  416;  imitation 
of,  424,  487;  Palazzo  Rucellai,  351,  352; 
Palazzo  Strozzi,  details,  371,  373; 
Palazzo  Vecchio,  332,  333;  Pazzi  Chapel, 
340,  378;  Ponte  Santa  Trinita,  418; 
S.  Francesco  al  Monte,  353;  S.  Lorenzo, 
348,  349-350,  365;  old  sacristy,  35O; 
facade,  316;  Medici  chapel,  361,  363, 
403;  fagade,  403;  Sta.  Maria  degli 
Angeli,  350,  366,  367;  S.  Miniato  al 
Monte,  238,  270,  347;  Sto.  Spirito,  365; 
sacristy,  353,  367;  Spedale  degli  Inno- 
centi,  348-349,  370;  Uffizi,  409;  Villa 
Medicea,  369 

Florida,  529 

Flutes,  58,  65 

Flying  buttress,  in  Normandy,  258^".; 
in  Gothic  architecture,  290,  291,  292; 
in  St.  Paul's,  London,  442 

Fontaine,  P.  L.,  467 

Fontainebleau,  423;  Gallery  of  Henry  II., 
384 

Fonthill  Abbey,  478 

Fora  ciyilia,  120 

Fore-courts,  384,  434 

Forms  for  concrete.  505 

Fortification,  see  Military  architecture 

Fortified  towns,  in  Romanesque  period, 
268;  in  Gothic  period,  323  ff. 

Forum,  104 

Fossanova,  317 

Fountains,  416,  434.  446,  578 

Fourth  crusade,  203 

Foyers,  473,  474.  So? 

France,  Roman  architecture  in,  152; 
Romanesque  architecture  in,  247  ff.; 
Gothic  architecture  in,  286 ff.,  306  ff.; 
Gothic  secular  architecture  in,  33Of.{ 
Renaissance  architecture  in,  346,  379-387; 
post-Renaissance  architecture  in,  402, 
422,  438;  classicism  in,  464,  465-467,  469; 
Romanticism  in,  483-484;  eclecticism  in, 
487,  493-494;  functio.ialism  in,  500,  503, 
504,  507,  514-515 

Francis  I.,  380-381 

Frankfort,  Salvatorsk^pelle,  221 

Freart  de  Chambray,  Roland,  425 

Frederick  the  Great,  452,  473;  proposed 
monument  to,  469,  542 

"Free  Classic,"  491 

Freiburg,   309,   313,  314 

French  colonial  architecture,   530-531 

"French  order,"  386 

Fresco,  in  late  Byzantine  architecture,  206; 
in  Italian  Gothic  architecture,  318 

Fret,  62,  72 

Friedrich  IV.,  390 

Frieze,  Corinthian,  67;  Doric,  58,  60-62, 
108;  Ionic,  65-67,  84-85;  pulvinated, 
419 


INDEX 


611 


Frigidarium,    129,    130 

Functionalism,  461,  499-516;  in  America, 
560-565 

Gable  roof,  39,  73,  78 

Gables,  106,  387,  394,  479,  532,  536 

Gabriel,  J.  A.,  431-432 

Gaillon,  chateau,  380 

Galilei,  Alessandro,  413 

Galleries,  368,  384,  393,  414,  447 

Gandon,  James,  471 

Gardens,  Renaissance,  370;  post-Renais- 
sance, in  Italy,  411,  414,  416;  in  France, 
430,  434;  in  England,  446-447;  in 
America,  556;  Mohammedan,  579; 
Chinese,  586 

Gargoyles,  291  ff. 

Gamier,   Charles,  494,  507 

Gartner,  Friedrich  von,  483,  487,  488 

Gate-houses,  384,  392,  393 

Gates,   Roman,    134-135 

Gau,  F.  C.,  484 

Gaza,  322 

Genoa,  baroque  architecture  in,  412;  pal- 
aces, 409,  419;  university,  415 

Geoffrey  de  Noyers,  303 

Geometric  Gothic  in  England,  304 

Georgia,  medieval  architecture  of,  203  ff. 

German  colonial  architecture,  535 

Germany,  Roman  architecture  in,  105,  151- 
152;  Romanesque  architecture  in,  242  ff.; 
Gothic  architecture  in,  285,  308  ff.; 
Renaissance  architecture  in,  346,  388- 
390;  post-Renaissance  architecture  in, 
402,  450-452;  classicism  in,  467,  468; 
Romanticism  in,  483;  electicism  in,  486, 
487,  488-490;  functionalism  in,  514-516 

Germigny-les-Pres,   196,  197,  212,  214,  221 

Gerona,  315,  340 

Gernrode,  244,  271 

Ghent,  Town  Hall,  330,  338 

Gibbons,  Grinling,  448 

Gibbs,  James,  447-448;  influenceof  537,538 

Gilly,  David,  469 

Ginain,  Paul,  494 

Giocondo,  Fra,  370 

Girault,  Charles,  495 

Girgenti,.  see  Akragas 

Gizeh,  pyramids,  n,  13,  14,  16-17;  "Tem- 
ple of  the  Sphinx,"  22 

Glass,  use  of  in  modern  architecture,  502, 
503-504,  561-563 

Gloucester,  cathedral,  306,  307,  339 

Gmund,  the  Holy  Cross,  311,  339 

Godefroi,   Maximilian,  551 

Goethe,  483,  506 

Gontard,  Karl  von,  452 

Goodhue.  B.  G.,  559 

Gorlitz,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  312,  339 

Gothic  architecture,  262  ff.,  275-343;  later 
opinion  of,  275;  priority  in,  276;  sur- 
vivals of,  in  England,  477;  in  America, 

532-534 
Gothic  revival,  477-485;   in  America,  550- 

552,  559-560 
Goths,  115 

Goujpn,  Jean,  381,  382,  383 
Gournia,  39 
•    Government  buildings,    469-472,  498,   541, 

542-545.  552.  558 

Graeco-Roman  period,  57-58,  151,  152 
Granada,   Alhambra,  577,  579;    palace  of 

Charles  V.,  388,  389 


Grave  monuments,  see  Tombs 

Greece,  ^Egean  architecture  in,  37-42; 
Persian  wars,  51,  52;  Macedonian  con- 
quest, 51,  55;  Roman  conquest,  103,  106, 
109 

Greek  architecture,  49-102;  influence  of, 
58,  103-104,  572 

Greek  cross  plan,  187,  197,  352,  366,  368, 
529,  550 

Greek  revival,  464,  467-469,  488,  489;  in 
America,  545-547,  549,  558 

Greek  type  of  plan,  122,  124,  148 

Greenwich,  King  Charles's  block,  439; 
Queen's  House,  344,  439 

Gregory  of  Nysa,  description  of  a  Martyr- 
ium,  176 

Gresham,  Sir  Thomas,  392 

Groined  vaults,  in  Roman  architecture,  128, 
131,  148,  149,  150;  in  medieval  archi- 
tecture, 226;  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
378,414 

Guarini,  Guarino,  412 

Gudea,  building  at  Lagash,  26 

Guilbert,  A.  D.,  495 

Guild  halls,  in  Gothic  Flanders,  329  ff. 

Guimard,   Hector,   514 

Guttffi,  59 

Gymnasia,   57,  92 

Gynacsa,  in  early  Christian  architecture, 
165 

Hadrian,  114,  118,  136,  146 

Haidra,  210,  211 

Half-timber,   534 

Halicarnassus,  55;    Mausoleum,  55,  95 

Hall,  534;   in  English  house,  392 

Halle,  St.  Mary,  312 

Hallenkirchen    in    German    Gothic,   309  ff. 

Hallet,  Stephen,  542-544 

Hamilton,  Thomas,  469 

Hampton  Court,  391,  393,  444 

Hankar,  Paul,  513,  514 

Hardwick,   Philip,   509 

Harem,  578 

Harlech,    326 

Harrison,  Peter,  539-540 

Hartford,  534;    Eaton  House,  534 

Hatfield  House,  394 

Hathor-head  columns,  22 

Hatshepsut,  18 

Hauran,   154 

Haviland,  John,  550 

Hawksmoor,  Nicholas,  442 

Heidelberg,  ch&teau,  389,  300,  450 

Hellenistic  period,  51,  56-57 

Henry  II.,  of  France,  381,  384 

Henry  IV.,  of  France,  423-424,  436 

Henry  VIII.,  of  England,  391 

Henry  the  Fowler,  242 

Herculaneum,  462 

Herder,  476,  500 

Hermogenes,  66,  144 

Herms,  390,  410,  419,  423 

Herrera,  Juan  de,  421 

Hildesheim,  St.  Michael,  227,  243,  244,  271 

Hingham,  "Old  Ship,"  535 

Hippodamus,   54-55,   98 

Hippodromes,  92 

Hip-roofs,  73.  584 

Hoarcross,  church,  404 

Hoban,  James,  542,  549 

Hobleton,  Flete  Lodge,  403 

Hoffman,  Joseph,  515 


6l2 


INDEX 


Hoffmann,  Ludwig,  490 

Holkham,  445 

Holland.  Renaissance  in,  390 

Holy   Land,    Gothic   architecture    in    the, 

286,  321  ff. 
Horiuji.  586 
Horta,  Victor,  513,  514 
Hotels,  498,  501 
Hotels.  French  Renaissance,  384 
House,  see  Domestic  architecture 
Housing,  98,  501 
Houston.  Rice  Institute,  560 
Hugh,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  303 
Hugo,  Victor    484 
Hunt,  R.  M.,  552,  556 
Hyksos,  13 

Hypsethral  temples,  78 
Hypostyle  hall,  20,  22,  23,  120 

Iconoclastic  controversy,   196 
Iffley,  259,  260 
Iktinos,  82,  84,  85,  144 
lie  de    France,    Romanesque    architecture 
of,  261  ff.;   Gothic  architecture  of,  284, 


Impost,  107,  146,  148 
Inca  architecture,  527 
India,  Hindu  architecture,  580-582;  in- 

fluence of,  580,  582;    Mohammedan  ar- 

chitecture in,  574,  S79,  581-582 
Interiors,  430,  432,  438,  439,  440;    Empire, 

467;    colonial,  534,  538,  539;    American, 

classical,  549-550 
Interlacing  arcades,  239,  241,  256 
Ionia,  architecture  in,  33,  51-52,   55,  56, 

87 

lonians,  51 

Ionic  angular  capital,   144 

Ionic  base,  72 

lonjc  capital,  origins  of,  32,  65 

Ionic  order,  Greek,  49,  51,  52,  56,  57,  64-67, 
66,  70,  72,  79,  82-85;  Roman,  109,  144 

Ipswich,  Whipple  house,  534,  335 

Irene,   Empress,   200 

Iron  age,   10 

Iron,  use  of  in  modern  architecture,  501, 
503-505,  560;  see  also  Steel 

Isidorus  of  Miletus,   188 

Isopata,  41 

"Italian  style,"  487,  55i' 

Italy,  Greek  architecture  in,  51,  52;  Roman 
architecture  of,  103-151;  Romanesque 
architecture  of.  226  ff.;  Gothic  architect- 
ure of,  285  ff.;  medieval  secular 
architecture  of,  332  ff.;  Renaissance. 
346-379;  early  Renaissance,  347,  358; 
High  Renaissance,  358-364;  post-Re- 
naissance architecture,  402,  403-419; 
modern  architecture  in,  406-498 

Jacobean  houses,  392-394,  534 
ahan,  Shah,  579 
ames  I.,  438 
amestown,  533 
apanese  architecture,  580,  386 
avan  architecture,  580,  582;   influence  of, 

580,  583 

Jean-de-Berry,  328 
Jean-le-Loup,  279 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  538,  S4I-S42,  544.  548, 

550 

Jerusalem,  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
173 


Jesuits,  415,  450 
JumiSges,  256,  257,  267 

Justinian,  183,  191 
ones,   Inigo,  438-439.  444.  445,  447,  44» 
Julius  II.,  358,  418 
Julius  Casar,  113,  118,  120,  127 
Juvara,  Filippo,  413 

Ka,  1 6 

Kalat-Seman,  St.  Simeon  Stylites,  160,  173, 

174 

Kallikrates,  82,  83,  84 
Karnak,  temples,    IQ,  20,  21 
Kassites,  26,  27 
Kearsley,  John,  538 
Kedleston,  468 
Kent,  William,  443 
Kew,  buildings  at,  486-487,  491 
Keystone,  107,  146 
Khafre,  16 

Khajuraho,  Temple  of  Vishnu,  581 
Khalb-Louzeh,    160,   173 
Khammurabi,  26 
Khan,  29 

Khmer  architecture,  580,  583 
Khorsabad;  see  Dur-Sharrukin 
Khufu,  ii,  13,  16 

Klenze,  Leo  von,  469,  474,  487,  488 
Knossos,  37,  38,  39 
Kodja-Kalessi,  160,  177 

Label  molding,  107 

Labrouste,  Theodore,  493,  503 

Laconicum,  129 

Lagash,  26 

La  Granja,  palace,  422 

Lake  dwellings,  8-9 

Lancet  style  of  Gothic,  284,  303  ff. 

Landscape  gardens,  434,  446-447,  475 

Lanfranc,   256 

Langres,    288,   338 

Languedoc,    Romanesque   architecture    of, 

250  ff. 

Lanternes  des  morts,  335 
Lanterns,  in  Romanesque  architecture.  267; 

in  French  Gothic.  297;  in  English  Gothic, 

301;    in  Renaissance  architecture,  348 
Las  Huelgas,  314,  340 
Lassus,  J.  B.  A.,  484 
Latin  cross  plan,  365,  550 
Latrobe,  B.  H..  545-546,  550,  560 
Lavra,  the  Catholicon,  201 
Lean-to,  534 
Le  Bran,  Charles,  430 
Ledpux,  C.  N.,  465 
Legislative   buildings,    471,    480,    541-543, 

545,   546 

Leipzig,  Imperial  courts,  490 
Lemercier,  Jacques,  424 
Lemsa,  210 
L'Enfant,  P.  C.,  542 
Lenoir,  Alexandra,  484 
Le  N6tre,  Andre,  434 
Leo  X.,  358 

Leo  the  Isaurian,  106;  cathedral,  314 
Leon,  S.  Isidore,  263,  265 
Leopold  II.,  496 
Leroy,  J.  D.,  462 
Lescot,  Pierre,  381,  382 
Les  Herbiers,  chapel,  484 
Le  Vau,  Louis,  426,  428,  433 
Libraries,  public,  498,  501,  503,  553,  554- 

555 


INDEX 


613 


Liernes,  in  English  Gothic,  304^.;  in 
Flamboyant  Gothic,  306 

Lifts,  561 

Light-wells,   39 

Lima,  cathedral,  528 

Lincoln,  cathedral,  304,  305 

Lintels,  3;  in  Egypt.  15;  in  ^Egean  archi- 
tecture, 40;  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
376,  386 

Liverpool,  St.  George's  Hall,  474,  475 

Locri,  temple,  77 

Log-cabins,  527 

Loges,  418,  507 

Loggias,  361,  370,  387.  444-  4SL  537. 
538 

Loire,  chateaux  of  the,  380-381 

Lombardi  family.,  355 

Lombardy,  Romanesque  architecture  in, 
226  ff.\  early  Renaissance  in,  354-355, 
377 

London.  Adelphi,  475;  Admiralty,  471; 
Bank  of  England,  468,  472;  Burlington 
House,  443;  Covent  Garden,  448; 
British  Museum,  474;  Crystal  Palace, 
504;  Euston  Station,  509;  Exposition  of 
1851,  504;  Foreign  Office,  482;  great  fire, 
447,  448;  Houses  of  Parliament,  480, 
481 ;  Institute  of  Chartered  Accountants, 
491;  Law  Courts,  482-483;  the  Monu- 
ment, 440;  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
492,  505-506;  Newgate  Prison,  472,  473; 
New  Zealand  Chambers,  491;  Regent's 
Park,  lodge,  491;  Regent's  Quadrant, 
475;  Royal  Automobile  Club,  491; 
Royal  Exchange,  392.  472;  St.  Bride's, 
447;  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields',  447-448; 
St.  Mary-le-Bow,  447,  440;  St.  Mary-le- 
Strand,  447;  St.  Pancras',  474;  St.  Paul's, 
440, 441;  St.  Paul's  (Old),  439;  St.  Paul's, 
Covent  Garden,  439,  447;  St.  Stephen's, 
Walbrook,  447;  Somerset  House,  444, 
471;  the  Tower,  St.  John's  Chapel, 
260;  Travelers'  Club,  487;  University  of 
London.  490;  Westminster  Abbey, 
Henry  VII. 's  Chapel.  306;  Westminster 
Cathedral,  402;  Whitehall  Palace,  439; 
Wren's  plan  for,  448;  York  Stairs,  439 

Long  and  short  work.  224 

Longhena,  Baldassare,  412,  419 

Longleat.  392,  394 

L'Orme,  Philibert  de,  381,  382,  383,  386, 
423 

Lorsch,  223 

Lotus  bud  column.  13,  22 

Lotus  flower  column,  22 

Louis  XII..  380 

Louis  XIII.,  423,  424 

Louis  XIV.,  423.  425-430 

Louis  XV.,  423.  430-431,  438 

Louis  XVI.,  423,  431-432,  438,  464 

Louis.  Victor,  464 

Louisiana,  531 

Lou  vain.  Town  Hall.  330 

Low  Countries,  Gothic  architecture  of,  286 

Ludwig  I.,  469,  488 

Lycia.   architecture  in.   33 

"Lyons,  H6tel  Dieu.  431;  St.  Nizier,  386 

McComb,  John,  544 

Mclntire,  Samuel,  547 

McKim,  C.  P.,  554-555.  556,  558,  560 

McKim,  Mead,  and  White,  554 

Machuca,  Pedro,  388 

Maderna,  Carlo.  411 


Madrid,  palace,  422 

Maestri  Comacini,  234 

Magister  Operarius,   219 

Magna  Graecia,  109 

Magnesia,  agora,  87,  88;  Temple  of 
Artemis,  57,  67,  77 

Mainz,  cathedral,  227,  245,  246,  248 

Major,  Thomas,  462 

Manassia,  180,  205,  206 

Manchester,  Assize  Courts,  482;  Town 
Hall,  482 

Mangin,  Joseph,  544,  550 

Manors,  fortified,  329,  392 

Mansart,  Francois,  425-426 

Mansart,  Jules  Hardouin,  428-430,  435 

Mantinea,  55 

Mantua,  S.  Andrea,  352;  S.  Sebastiano, 
352,  366,  367 

Marble,  in  Greek  architecture,  49,  54,  70, 
72,  73,  82;  in  Roman  architecture,  113, 
151;  in  English  Gothic,  304;  in  Renais- 
sance architecture,  355;  in  post-Renais- 
sance architecture,  411,  418,  436;  in 
Victorian  Gothic,  482;  in  American 
architecture,  542 

Marble  veneering,   118,   131,   149-151,  418 

Marburg,  St.  Elizabeth,  278,  310,  315,  316 

Marcellus,  126 

Marcus  Aurelius,  133 

Marie  Antoinette,  434 

Markets,  539,  540 

Marly,  434 

Martyrium,  described  by  Gregory  of 
Nysa,  176 

Maryland,  colonial  architecture,   533,   537 

Massachusetts,  colonial  architecture,  534 

Mastaba,  16 

Mausolea,  55,  95,  114 

Mausolus,  95 

Maxentius,    123,   124 

Maximilian   II..  488 

Maya  architecture,  524,  526 

Mazarin,  327 

Mchabbak.    173,   181 

Meander,  62 

Mecca,  573 

Medes,  30 

Medford,  Royall  house,  547 

Medici,  Catherine  de,  424 

Medieval  architecture,  159-343;  influence 
of.  344-345 

Medieval  revival.  476-485 

Medieval  survivals,  477,  532  -  534,  536, 
538 

Medum,  pyramid  at,  16 

Meeting-nouses,  534-535 

Megalithic  works,  9 

Megalopolis,  55;  agora,  87;  hall  of  the 
Arcadians,  56,  89;  theater,  91 

Megaron,  39,  42,  74,  76,  80,  89,  92-93 

M6hun-sur-Yevre.  328 

Meissonier,  J.  A.,  430 

Memphis,   13 

Memphite  period,  13,  16 

Menai  suspension  bridge,  503 

Menes,  12 

Menhirs,  9 

Menkure,  pyramid  of,  16 

Mesopotamia  preclassical  architecture,  24- 
32;  later  styles,  572-574 

Messene,  55 

Metopes,  58,  60,  63,  84 

Mexico  City,  cathedral,  527,  528 


614 


INDEX 


Mexico,  pre-colqnial  architecture,  524-526; 

Spanish  colonial  architecture,  527-529 
Mezzanines,  369,  376,  435 
Michelangelo,  358,  374,  377,  403-407,  419 
Michelozzo,  351,  360 

"  Middle  Kingdom  "  in  Egypt,  13,  17,  20,  22 
Milan,     cathedral,     321,     322;       Palazzo 

Marino,    410;     S.    Ambrogio,    227,    228, 

229,  230,  231,  232,  233,  290;  Sta.  Maria 

della    Passione,    367;     Sta.    Maria   near 

San  Satiro,  355 

Miletus,  bouleuterion,  89;   see  also  Didyma 
Military  architecture,  Mesopotamian,  25, 29; 

Mycensean,  37;  Roman,  104;  Byzantine, 

210;   Gothic,  323-328,  329;  Chinese,  586 
Milizia.  Francesco,  506 
Mills,  Robert,  546,  550 
Minarets,   576-578 
Minoan  period,  37-42 
Mirhab,  574-575 
Missions,  529-530 
Mistra,  Peribieptos,  206 
Mitla,  526 

Mitylene,  theater,   125 
Mnesicles,  87 
Moat,  384 
Modena,   234 

Modern  architecture,  460-523 
Modernism,  499,   502,   505-516,  563-565 
Modillions,  67,  145 

Module,  in  Greek  architecture,  50,  63,  64 
Mohammedan  architecture,   573-579 
Moldings,    Greek,    71,    72;     Roman,    144; 

Gothic,  298;   Renaissance,  372-374 
Moliere,  opinion  of  Gothic,  275 
Monaco,  Trophy  of  Augustus,  133 
Monasticon  Anglicanum,  477 
Monceaux,  chateau,  382-384 
Monier,  Joseph,  504 
Monreale,  227,  240,  241 
Montacute,  303 
Monte  Carlo,   Casino,  494 
Monticello,  548 
Montier-en-Der,   223 
Monuments,    commemorative,    Greek,    95; 

Roman,   104,  133 
Moorish   architecture,    influence   in   South 

Italian  and  Sicilian  Romanesque,  230  ff.; 

in  Spanish   Gothic,   313  ff.;    in   Spanish 

architecture,  387,   527 
Mora,  J.  G.  de,  528 
Morienval,  227,  262,  263,  267,  288 
Moriscoes,  387 
Morris,  William,   500,   505 
Mosques,   574~S78 
Mount  Airy,  537 
Mousmieh,  Prastorium,  153,  154 
Mschatta  frieze  (Berlin  Museum),  174,  175, 

181,   574 

Miilhausen,  Liebfrauenkirche,  312,  339 
Mullioned  windows,  394,  533 
Munich,    483,    487,    488;     cathedral,    312, 

339;    Glyptothek,  474;    Konigsbau,  487; 

Ministry  of  War,  487;    Pinakothek,  487; 

Royal   Library,  487;    Theatine   Church, 

451;    Wagner  theater,  507 
Munster,  309,  312 
Mural  painting,  94,  139 
Museums,  474,  498 
Mutules,  58,  60,  63 
Mycenze,  37;   palace,  39;    "Gate  of  Lions," 

40,  41,  42;    "Treasury  of  Atreus,"  41- 

42,  43 


Mycenasan  period,  37-42 
Mycerinus,  16 
Myra,  St.  Nicholas,  177 
Mystery  temples,  74,  75,  85-86 

Naksh-i-Rustam,  35,  36 

Nancy,  431,  436 

Nantes,  307 

Naos,  76 

Napoleon,  466-467,  475 

Napoleon  III.,  484 

Narni,  bridge,   132 

Narthex,   in   early   Christian   architecture, 

165      t 

Nationalism,  219,  344,  476,  501,  517 
Naturalism,  476 
Naumburg,   309 
Nauplia,  Nea  Mpni,  200 
Near  East,  architecture  in,  572-579 
Nebuchadnezzar,  30 
Nemea,  Doric  capital,  63 
Neo-classicisrn  in  America,  556-559,  563 
Neo-grec,  469,  490,  493 
Neolithic  period,  8 
Nero,   113,   139,   141 
Nesfield,  Eden,  491 
New  Bedford,  Bennett  house,  549 
New  England,  colonial  architecture,   534- 

535;   post-colonial  architecture,  547,  549 
New  Mexico,  529 
New  Orleans,  531;   Cabildo,  331 
Newport,    casino,    554;     "cottages,"    552; 

Market,  540;    Redwood  Library,  540 
New  York,  532;  Astor  house,  552;  Century 

Club,   555!     City  Hall,   544;    City  Hall 

(old),    538;     Columbia   University,    558; 

Custom     House     (Sub-Treasury),     546; 

Federal  Hall,  542;    Grant's  Tomb,  558; 

Knickerbocker   (Columbia)    Trust   Com- 

Estny,  558;  Lafayette  Place,  549;  Lenox 
ibrary,  552;  Madison  Square  Garden, 
555;  office  buildings,  560-563;  Mer- 
chants' Exchange  (National  City  Bank), 
546;  Pennsylvania  Station.  558;  St. 
Patrick's,  551;  St.  Paul's  Chapel,  538, 
539;  Stadt-Huis,  532;  State  Prison,  550; 
Trinity  Church,  551;  Woolwprth  Build- 
ing, 561,  562,  563;  World  Building,  561; 
Vanderbilt  houses,  552;  Villard  houses, 
554 

Niches,  131,  148,  359,  361,  452,  464 

Nicholas  V.,  357 

Nika  sedition,  1 88 

Nimes,  amphitheater,  128;  "Baths  of 
Diana,"  152,  247;  "  Maison  Carree,"  116; 
imitation  of,  542;  Pont  du  Card,  132, 
247 

Nineveh,  27,  28 

Nippur,  26 

Nordlingen,  St.  George,  310,  316 

Normandy,  Romanesque  architecture  in, 
?-55  ff-.  256;  Gothic  architecture  in,  285 

Nurnberg,  Peller  house,  390,  391;  St. 
Lawrence,  311 

Oak  Park,  Church  of  the  Unity,  565 

Obelisks,  21 

Odeions,  74,  91^-92 

Odoacer,    115 

Office  buildings,  501 

Olbrich,  Joseph,  515 

"Old  Babylonian  kingdom,"  26 

"Old  Kingdom"  in  Egypt,  13,  16,  20 


INDEX 


615 


Ollentaitambo,  527 

Olmsted,  F.  L.,  558 

Olympia,  52,  55.  56,  95;  bouleuterion,  89; 
circular  temple,  85;  gymnasium,  92; 
Metroon,  78;  stadion,  92;  temple  of 
Hera,  62,  79,  82;  temple  of  Zeus,  77, 
78,  80;  treasuries,  86 

Olympic  games,   50 

Openings,  in  Greek  architecture,  73;  in 
Roman  architecture,  144;  in  early 
Christian  architecture,  165;  develop- 
ment of,  in  Romanesque  architecture, 
267;  in  Gothic  architecture,  204,  295,  296; 
in  Italian  domestic  architecture,  333  ff.; 
in  Renaissance  architecture,  374,  382 

Openwork,  in  late  Gothic  architecture,  307; 
in  Spanish  Gothic,  315 

Opisthodomos,  76,  80 

Opus  alexandrinum,   165 

Opus  francigenum,  275,  308 

Opus  incer turn,  150 

Opus  reticulatum,  150 

Opus  spicalum,  150 

Orange,  theater,  126;    triumphal  arch,  247 

Orchestra,  89,  91,  124,  125,  126 

Orchomenos,  41 

Orcival,  250 

Orders,  49,  57;  in  Rome,  104,  107,  109-112; 
in  the  Renaissance,  374-376,  377 

Orders,  colossal,  375-376;  in  Italy,  405, 
407,  408,  419;  in  France,  426,  427,432, 
434;  in  England,  439,  442,  444 

Orders,  superposed,  in  Roman  architecture, 
127;  in  Renaissance  architecture,  351, 
355.  357,  368,  374,  388,  392;  in  post- 
Renaissance  architecture,  408,  414,  426 
439,  442,  444,  447,  448;  in  American 
architecture,  538 

Orders,  see  also  Columns 

Organic  architecture,   definition  of,   2i8jf. 

Oriental  influence,  in  Roman  architecture, 
106,  115,  143  in  western  Europe,  179 

Oriental  type  of  plan,  12,  25,  37-39,  87,93, 
114,  148 

Orientation  of  medieval  churches,  168 

Orleans,  Gaston  d',  425 

Ornament,  Egyptian,  24;  Mesopotamian, 
32;  Persian,  33;  .flJgean,  42;  Greek,  72- 
73;  Roman,  151;  in  Christian-Roman 
architecture,  166;  in  Syrian  architecture, 
174;  in  early  Byzantine  architecture, 
184;  in  later  Byzantine  architecture, 
198,  206;  in  Carolingian  architecture, 
223:  in  Lombard  Romanesque,  230; 
in  Tuscan  Romanesque,  266;  in  Sicilian 
Romanesque,  240  ff.;  in  French  Gothic, 
297  ff-;  in  Spanish  Gothic,  313;  Renais- 
sance, 377;  in  Mohammedan  architect- 
ure, 579;  in  Far  Eastern  architecture, 
580,  581 

Orvieto,  320,  321 

Ostia,  143;    theater,  126 

Otto  Hemrich,  389 

Oval  house,  10 

Overhang,   534 

Ovolo,  72 

Oxford,  Clarendon  Press,  442;  colleges, 
477.  485;  St.  Mary's,  448 

PsDstum,  52,  462,  493;  "Basilica,"  77; 
great  temple,  75,  80,  85;  imitation  of, 
549;  temple  of  Demeter.  capital,  63 

Pagodas,   580,   584 

21 


Palaces,  Egyptian,  21;  Mesopotamian,  25, 
28,  29,  30;  Persian,  33-36,  34;  ^Egean, 
37,  39-40;  Roman,  104;  Byzantine, 
2O&ff.;  Renaissance,  345,  350-352,  355, 
359.  360,  361,  368-369;  post-Renaissance, 
in  Italy,  414,  415-416;  in  Spain,  420- 
421,  422;  in  France,  433;  in  England, 
439,  442,  444-445;  Mohammedan,  578- 
579;  Chinese,  585 

Palcestras,  92,   130 

Palenque,   524,   525 

Paleolithic  period,  8 

Palermo,  Cappella  Palatina,  240;  cathe- 
dral, 240 

Palladian  motive,  376 

"Palladian  style,"  442-444,  448-450,  465; 
in  America,  536,  538 

Palladio,  Andrea,  370,  408-409,  416,  419, 
443,  461 

Palm  column,  22 

Palmyra,   146,   154,  462 

Paneling,  534.  538 

Papyrus  column,  13,  22 

Parion,  altar,  86 

Paris,  Arc  du  Carrousel,  466;  Arc  de 
1'Etoile,  466,  467,  500;  Bazaar  de  la 
rue  de  Rennes,  504,  5/0;  Bibliothdque 
Nationale,  502,  503;  Bibliothe'que 
Sainte  Genevidve,  493,  495,  503;  Bourse, 
467,  472;  cathedral,  280,  290,  292, 
203,  295,  296,  338;  Chapelle  Com- 
m£morative,  495;  Chateau  Madrid,  380; 
College  des  Quatre  Nations,  426,  435; 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  484,  491,  493,  512; 
influence,  552,  555,  560;  Ecole  Mili- 
taire,  432,  436;  Eiffel  Tower,  503;  Expo- 
sition of  1855,  504;  Exposition  of  1878, 
504;  Exposition  of  1900,  512;  Gare 
de  1'Est,  509;  Gare  du  Nord,  509; 
Gare  du  quai  d'Orsay,  509,  511;  Halle 
au  Ble,  472,  503;  Halles  Centrales,  503; 
hotels,  434;  Hotel  Cluny,  33L  337,  338; 
Hotel  de  Salm,  464;  Hotel  de  Ville,  382, 
495;  Invalides,  435,  436;  Louvre,  337, 
382;  colonnade,  426,  427,  428;  court, 
383,  424,  426;  south  facade,  426;  Lux- 
embourg, 425;  Madeleine,  467,  542; 
Metropolitan  Railway  stations,  514; 
Mint,  471;  Mus6e  Galliera,  494;  Mus£e 
des  Monuments  Francais,  484;  octroi 
gates,  465;  Od6on,  473;  Ope>a,  494,  496, 
507,  508;  Opera  (Old),  487;  Palais 
Bourbon,  471;  Palais  de  I'lndustrie,  504; 
Palais  de  Justice,  47 1 ;  Vestjbule  de  Har- 
ley,  504;  Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
464;  Panth6on,  see  Sainte  Geneviftve; 
Petit-Palais,  494;  Place  Dauphine,  423, 

M6;  Place  de  la  Concorde,  432,  436; 
ace  de  France,  436;  Place  Royale,  423, 
436;  Place  Vend6me,  436;  Place  des 
Victoires,  436;  Porte  St.  Denis,  437,  438, 
500;  rue  de  Rivoli,  475;  Sacred  Heart, 
495.  497!  St.  Augustin,  495;  Ste. 
Chapelle,  271?,  291,  299,  338;  Ste. 
Clotilde,  484,  485;  St.  Eustache,  384; 
Ste.  Genevi^ve,  464,  465;  imitation  of, 
544;  St.  Germain-des-Pre's,  290,  338; 
St.  Gervais,  424;  St.  Martin  des  Champs, 
202,  338;  St.  Philippe  du  Roule,  474- 
475;  St.  Sulpice,  431;  Ste.  Trinite',  495; 
Sorbonne,  chapel,  435;  Tuileries,  384,  385, 
387,  423;  Val-de-Grace,  426,  435; 
Venddme  column,  466 


6i6 


INDEX 


Parma,  234,  270;  theater,  416 
Parterres,  416 
Parthia,  57,  572 

Pasargadae,  33,  36 

Patio,  529 

Paulinzelle,  242,  243,  244,  271 

Pavia,  Certosa,  320,  353,  354;  San  Michele, 
231.  233.  270 

Pavilions,  358,  361,  382,  426,  428,  432,  448, 
544 

Paxton,  Sir  Joseph,  504 

Pearson,  J.  L.,  492 

Pediments,  in  Greek  architecture,  73,  78, 
84;  in  Roman  architecture,  106;  in 
Renaissance  architecture,  349,  366,  387; 
in  post-Renaissance  architecture,  411; 
broken,  390,  401,  403,  419,  423,  437, 
448.  S36 

Pekin,  Temple  of  Heaven,  584 

Pendentive,    177  ff. 

Penetrations,  378,  414,  421 

Pennethorne,  Sir  James,  490 

Pennsylvania,  colonial  architecture,  535 

Percier,  Charles,  467 

Pergamon,  56,  73;  Altar  of  Zeus,  57,  86; 
palace,  93;  Ionic  temple,  85 

Pericles,  54,  80 

Pe'rigueux,  St.  Front,  212,  227,  251,  252, 
267 

Peristyle,  exterior,  in  Egyptian  architect- 
ure, 23;  in  Greek  architecture,  74,  76, 
95;  in  Roman  architecture,  107,  116; 
in  Renaissance  architecture,  358,  379; 
in  post-Renaissance  architecture,  442; 
in  modern  architecture,  467;  in  Amer- 
ican architecture,  544,  549,  558 

Peristyle,  interior,  74.  82,  89,  93,  148;  see 
also  Courts,  peristylar 

Perislylium ,   112 

Perpendicular  Gothic,  284,  305  ff.,  312 

Perrault,  Claude,  427-428 

Persepolis,  33-36;  palace,  34;  tomb  of 
Darius,  35 

Persia,  Mohammedan  architecture  in,  573- 
574.  575-576,  579 

Persian  architecture,  Achaemenian  period, 
32-36;  Sassanian  period,  572-573 

Perspectives,  constructed,  412,  416 

Peru,  527,  528 

Perugia,  "Arch  of  Augustus,"  108 

Peruzzi,  Baldassare,  360-361,  374 

Phaistos,  39 

Phidias,  54,  80,  82 

Philadelphia,  535,  537,  560;  Bank  of 
Pennsylvania,  545;  Bank  of  the  United 
States  (Custom  House),  545,  546;  Bank 
of  the  United  States  (Girard's  Bank), 
542;  Centennial  Exposition,  554;  Christ 
Church,  538;  Girard  College,  546;  In- 
dependence Hall,  538-539;  library,  542; 
Merchants'  Exchange,  546;  Pennsyl- 
vania Hospital,  540;  Sedgeley,  551; 
State  House,  538-539 

Philae,   21 

Philip  II.,  420 

Piano  nobile,  360 

Picardy,  Gothic  architecture  in,  284 

Picturesqueness  in  medieval  architecture, 
335 

Piedmont,  baroque  architecture,  412 

Pienza,  Piazza,  370 

Pier,  compound,  in  Lombard  Romanesque 


architecture,  228;  in  Gothic  architecture, 
293,  294 

Pierrefonds,  327,  338 

Pilaster  strip,  in  Lombard  Romanesque, 
228 

Pilasters,  in  Roman  architecture,  127,  146; 
paneled,  377 

Pile  dwellings,  8-0,  10 

Pioneer  architecture,  527 

Piraeus,  54,  98,;   arsenal,  74 

Piranesi,  G.  B.,  462,  464 

Pisa,  baptistry,  238;  cathedral,  229,  235, 
236,  237,  238;  cathedral  group,  235,  237; 
Leaning  Tower,  235,  238 

Pisistratus,  52,  67,  86 

Pittsburgh,  Allegheny  Court  House,  553; 
Calvary  Church,  558 

Pitzounda,  204,  214 

Planning,  2;  in  Rome,  105;  in  France, 
384,  435;  irregular,  105,  361,  436 

"  Plantagenet "  Gothic,  285 

Plateresque,  387 

Platt,  C.  A.,  556 

Plymouth,  534 

Poblet,  314 

Poelaert,  Joseph,  496 

Poggio  a  Cajano,  Villa,  353,  37O,  376 

Poitiers,  Notre  Dame  la  Grande,  252,  253 

Pollaiuolo,  Simone  del,  352-353 

Polychromy,  in  Egyptian  architecture,  12; 
in  Mesopotamian  architecture,  32;  in 
Greek  architecture,  72;  in  Roman  archi- 
tecture, 151;  in  early  Christian  archi- 
tecture, 166,  176;  in  Byzantium,  184, 
198;  in  Lombard  Romanesque,  230;  in 
Tuscan  Romanesque,  236;  in  French 
Gothic,  298;  in  Tuscan  Gothic,  320 

Polyclitus,  55 

Polygonal  masonry,  40,  527 

Pompeii,  113,  116-118,  120,  137-139,  462; 
amphitheater,  ,127;  House  of  Pansa,  138, 
139;  theaters,  124 

Pompey,  113 

Poppelmann,  Matthaus,  431 

Portico,  in  ^gean  architecture,  38-40;  in 
Greek  architecture,  57,  83,  93;  in  Roman 
architecture,  107,  iiS;  in  Renaissance 
architecture,  386;  in  modern  architect- 
ure, 442,  443,  445,  447,  45?,  463,  464, 
469,  471,  472,  474,  475;  in  American 
architecture,  537,  538,  540,  542,  545, 
546,  548,  549,  550;  see  also  Peristyle, 
exterior 

Post-colonial  architecture,  547,  550 

Post-Renaissance    architecture,    xxii,    401— 

.    459;    in  America,  536-540,  542-545 

Pozzolana,  149 

Prague,  Belvedere,  388;  Waldstein  palace, 
450 

Preclassjcal  architecture,  11-47 

Prehistoric  architecture,  8-10 

Priene,  97;  plan,  98;  agora,  87;  Council- 
house,  89;  "  House  XXXIII,"  03;  temple 
of  Athena,  55,  85 

Primaticcio,  Francesco,  381,  382,  383,  385 

Prior  Park,  445 

Prisons,  471-472,  501,  541,  550 

Pronaos,  76,  So 

Proportions,  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
377;  in  post-Renaissance  architecture, 
402,  403,  444 

Propylaea,  39-40,  42,  86-87 

Proskenion,  89,  91 


INDEX 


617 


Prostyle  portico,  76,  82,  83 

Protestantism,  447,  451,  485,  534-535 

Prothesis,   165,  221 

"  Proto-Renaissance,"    238 

Provence,  Roman  architecture  in,  151-152; 

Romanesque  architecture  in,  247  ff. 
Providence  Plantation,  534 
Ptolemaic  period,  15,  22 
Pugin,  Augustus,  479 
Pugin,  A.  W.,  480,  500 
Purbeck  marble,  304 
Pylon,   20 

Pyramid-mastaba,  17 
Pyramids,   n,   13,   16-17,  135 

Quadriga,   134,   137 

Quais,  436 

"Queen  Anne"  style,  490-491;  in  America, 

553-554 
Quimper,  307 
Quoins,  150,  423,  533 

Radial  plans,  434,  436,  448,  550 

Railway  stations,  498,  501,  507-508,  553 

Ramesseum,   23,   109 

Ramps,  416 

Ramses   III.,    15 

Raphael,  358,  360-361,  369,  374,  377 

Raschdorff,  J.  C.,  489 

Ravanitsa,  IQO,  205 

Ravenna,  Sant'  Apollinare  in  Classe,  194; 
Sant'  Apollinare  Nuovo,  168,  160,  194; 
Baptistry  of  the  Orthodox  (S.  Giovanni 
in  Fonte),  179;  Mausoleum  of  Galla 
Placidia  (SS.  Nazzaro  e  Celso),  160,  178, 
179,  195.  !97i  palace  of  Theodoric,  207; 
S.  Vitale,  185,  186,  189,  190,  195,  197 

Refinements,  in  Greek  architecture,  50,  82, 
85;  in  Roman  architecture,  116;  in 
medieval  architecture,  219  ff. 

Reformation,  401,  402 

Regensburg,  469 

Reims,  cathedral,  287,  290,  291,  295,  296, 
299,  300;  St.  Remi,  262 

Renaissance  architecture  xxii,  344-400;  re- 
vival of,  487-489,  490,  492,  493;  in  Amer- 
ica, 552,  554-556 

Ren  wick,  James,  551 

Restoration,  of  Gothic  buildings,  478 

Revett,  Nicholas,  462,  465 

Revolution,  French,  469,  484;  American,  540 

Rhamnus,  temple  of  Themis,  77 

Rhine  valley,  Romanesque  architecture  of, 
245 

Rhodes.  56;  plan  of,  98;  Gothic  architect- 
ure in,  286 

Rhythmical  bay,  352,  357-358,  365,  386 

Ribbed  vaults,  in  Lombard  Romanesque 
and  Gothic,  226  ff. 

Richardson,  H.  H.,  552-553 

Richelieu,  chateau,  424 

Richmond,  capitol,  $41,  542;  Monumental 
Church,  550;  penitentiary,  550 

Rickman,  Thomas,  479 

Rimini,  S.  Francesco.  351 

Robert  de  Luzarches,  279 

Rocaille,  430 

Rockville,  Maxwell  Court,  SS5 

Rock- work,   411 

Rococo,  438;  in  Germany,  451;  in  France, 
422.  430-431,  4-12 

Rodriguez,  Lorenzo,  528 

Rogers,  Isaiah,  546 


Roman  arch  order,  see  Arch  order 

Roman  architecture,  103-158;  influence  of, 
154,  345;  revival  of,  464-467;  in  Amer- 
ica, 541-542,  544-545 

Romanesque  architecture,  217-274;  prior- 
ity in,  225;  influence  of,  268  ff. 

Romanesque  revival,  in  Germany,  483;  in 
England,  492;  in  France,  495;  in  Amer- 
ica, 552-553,  556 

Romanticism,  461,  476-485 

Rome,  57,  113-115,  346,  357.  377.  412; 
Aqueduct  of  Appius  Claudius,  108; 
"Arch  of  Constantine,"  134,  147;  Arch 
of  Domitian,  134,  147;  Arch  of  Titus, 
133;  Basilica  JEmilia,  123;  Basilica 
Julia,  113,  122-123;  Basilica  of  Maxen- 
tius,  123,  124;  Basilica  Ulpia,  122,  123; 
Cancellaria,  357-358,  369,  372;  Cap- 
itol, 406,  407,  419;  Castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo,  136;  Circus  Maximus,  128;  Co- 
losseum, ///.  127-128;  Column  of 
Duilius,  133;  Column  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  133;  Column  of  Trajan,  133;  Comi- 
tium,  122;  Curia,  122;  Fora  of  the  Em- 
perors, 121 ;  Forum  of  Augustus,  113, 
120;  Forum  of  Caesar,  113,  118,  120; 
Forum  Romanum,  113,  IIQ,  121,  122; 
Forum  of  Trajan,  114,  120-122;  Forum 
Transitorium,  147;  fountain  of  Acqua 
Paola,  411;  French  Academy,  428;  II 
Gesu,  411;  Golden  House  of  Nero,  141; 
Isola  Tiberina,  143;  Lateran,  168;  facade, 
413,  463;  Mausoleum  of  Augustus,  136; 
Mausoleum  of  Hadrian,  136;  monument 
to  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  496,  499; 
palaces  of  the  Caesars,  139-142,'  141; 
Palatine  Hill,  114,  139-141,  143;  Palazzo 
dell'  Aquila,  360,  361;  Palazzo  Barberini, 
415;  Palazzo  Barberini,  stairs,  419; 
Palazzo  Cancellaria,  357-358,  369,  372; 
Palazzo  Farnese,  368,  369,  371,  372; 
cornice,  375;  Palazzi  Massimi,  361, 
362;  Palazzo  Ludovisi  (Montecitorio), 
412;  Palazzo  Raffaello,  358,  360; 
Palazzo  del  Senatore,  406-407;  Pa- 
lazzo Venezia,  357;  Pantheon,  114, 
115,  117,  118,  149;  impost,  146,  147; 
tabernacles,  144;  imitation  of,  351,  359, 
463.  471,  474,  475,  544,  545;  Piazza  del 
Popolo,  418;  Piazza  of  Saint  Peter,  412, 
418,  419;  Pons  ^milius,  108;  Pons 
Mulvius,  132;  Ripetta,  418;  rostrum, 
122;  Sant'  Agnese  fuori-le-mura,  162, 
168,  180;  Sant'  Agnese,  Piazza.  Navona, 
412;  S.  Andrea,  409;  S.  Carlo  a'  Cati- 
nari,  415;  S.  Clemente,  163,  164,  180; 
Sta.  Costanza,  137,  170,  177,  180;  S. 
Giovanni  in  Laterano,  168;  facade,  413, 
463;  S.  Ivo.  412;  S.  Lorenzo  fuori-le- 
mura,  160.  167,  168,  i6g,  180;  S.  Marco, 

355,  357;    Sta.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  168; 
Sta.    Maria    Maggiore,    168,    180;     Sta. 
Maria   del    Popolo,    Chigi    Chapel,    360; 
St.    Paul's   Outside-the-Walls,    162,    164, 
167,  168,  180;   St.  Peter's,  357,  359,  360, 
366,  367,  368,  375-376,  378,  379,  404.  405; 
baldachino,  412;   colonnades,  411;  dome, 
495-496;    facade,   411;    nave,  414;    St. 
Peter's   (Old),   160,    164,    165,    168,    180; 
S.    Pietro    in    Montorio,    "Tempietto," 

356,  358,  377.  379;    S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli, 
160,  168,  180;    S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  160, 
162,     170,     180;     Spanish     Steps,     418; 


6i8 


INDEX 


Tabularium,  109,  iio-m;  temple  of 
Antoninus  and  Faustina,  146,  147;  tem- 
ple of  Castor  and  Pollux,  145;  "Temple 
of  Fortuna  Virilis,"  109;  temple  of  Mars 
the  Avenger,  113,  116;  temple  of  Trajan, 
122;  temple  of  Venus  and  Rome,  118; 
"Temple  of  Vesta,"  118;  theaters,  126; 
theater  of  Pompey,  113,  125,  126; 
thermae  of  Caracalla,  129,  130;  impost, 
147;  thermae  of  Diocletian,  130;  tomb 
of  Constantia,  137;  see  also  Santa  Cos- 
tanza;  Vatican,  357,  404;  Court  of  the 
Belvedere,  359;  Court  of  San  Damaso, 
loggia,  361,  377;  Scala  Regia,  412; 
Villa  Farnesina,  361,  369;  Villa  Madama, 
359,  361,  370,  377,  378;  Villa  di  Papa 
Giulio,  409;  stairs,  419;  Villa  Pia,  404, 
416 

Romulus  Augustulus,   115 

Roof -comb,  524 

Roofs,  4;  in  Egypt,  23;  in  Mesopotamia, 
25;  in  Persia,  33;  in  Crete,  38;  in 
Greece,  39,  73,  78;  in  Italian  Renais- 
sance, 379;  in  French  Renaissance,  382, 
387;  in  English  Renaissance,  394;  in 
American  architecture,  532,  533,  535,  536; 
in  India,  580;  in  China,  580,  584 

Root,  J.  W.,  556,  564 

Rose  windows,  295 

Rostra,   122 

Rouen,  cathedral,  Tomb  of  Louis  de 
Breze,  382;  Palais  de  Justice,  332;  St. 
Maclou,  307,  310;  St.  Ouen,  307,  308 

Rough  cast,  513 

Ruskin,  John,  481,  506;    influence  of,  551 

Rustication,  in  Roman  architecture,  144; 
in  the  Renaissance,  350,  351,  371,  376; 
in  post-Renaissance  architecture,  401, 
410,  418,  419,  423,  424,  448 

Ruweiha,   173 

Sacconi,  Count  Giuseppe,  496 

St.  Augustine,  529 

St.  Denis,  309;    mausoleum  of  the  Valois, 

384,  386 

St.  Gall  (Switzerland),  221,  222 
St.-Gaudens,  Augustus,  558 
St.  Germain,  423 
St.  Germer  de  Fly,  290,  292,  293 
St.  Gilles,  249 
St.  Leu  d'Esserent,  289 
St.  Loup-de-Naud,  262 
St.  Maur-les-Fosses,  chateau,  382 
St.  Medard-en-Jalle,  329 
St.  Saturnin,  250 
Saite  period,   15,  22 
Sakkara,  pyramid,  16 
Salamanca,     Casa     de     Monterey,     388; 

university,  387 

Salem,  Pierce- Nichols  house,  547,  548 
Salisbury,    276,    280,    301,    302,    303,    304 
Salon,  433 
Salonica,  Eski-djouma,  186;   Hagia  Sophia, 

1 86,  1 88 

Salzburg,  cathedral,  450 
Samos,  52;   temple  of  Hera,  79,  85 
Samothrace,  Kabirion,  86 
San  Diego,  529 
San  Francisco  Solano,  529 
San  Gabriel,  530 
San  Galgano,  317 
San  Gallo,  Antonio  da,  the  elder,  352-353, 

366;  the  younger,  368,  379,  405 


San  Gallo,  Giuliano  da,  352-353 

San  Juan  Capistrano,  530 

San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  529 

Sanmicheli,  Michele,  362-363 

San  Miguel  de  Linio,  225 

Sansovino,  Jacopo,  362-364,  377 

Santa  Barbara,  mission,  530 

Santa  Creus,  314 

Santa  F6,  cathedral,  529 

Santa  Maria  de  Naranco,  225 

Santullano,    225 

Sarcophagi,  94,  109,  135,  403 

Sargon  II.,  27,  29 

Sash  windows,  446,  536 

Sassanian  architecture,  572-573;  in- 
fluence of,  573,  574 

Saucer  dome,  379,  464,  556 

Sccenie  frons,  124,  126-127,  416 

Scamozzi,  Vincenzp,  450 

Scandinavia,  Gothic  architecture  in,  321 

Schinkel,  K.  P.,  469,  473,  474,  483 

Schliiter,  Andreas,  451 

Schmidt,   Friedrich,   489 

Schnaase,  Karl,  500 

Scipio  Barbatus,  sarcophagus,  109 

Scotia,  65 

Scott,  Sir  Gilbert,  482 

"Screens,"  392,  393 

Sculpture,  in  Egyptian  architecture,  11; 
in  Mesopotamian  architecture,  32;  in 
Greek  architecture,  54,  78,  84-85;  in 
early  Christian  architecture,  174;  in 
Byzantine  architecture,  184;  in  Lombard 
Romanesque,  230;  in  Aquitanian  Ro- 
manesque, 253;  in  Spanish  Romanesque, 
263  ff.;  in  French  Gothic,  298;  in 
English  Gothic,  302;  in  German  Gothic, 
310;  in  Spanish  Gothic,  313;  in  Italian 
Renaissance  architecture,  354,  377;  in 
Khmer  architecture,  583;  in  Japanese 
architecture,  586 

Secession,  see  Modernism 

"Second  Golden  Age"  of  Byzantine  art, 
197 

Secular  architecture,  in  Byzantium,  207  ff.; 
in  the  Romanesque  period,  268;  in  the 
Gothic  period,  322  ff. 

Sedding,  J.  D.,  492 

Segesta,  temple,  85 

Selinus,  52,  80;  megaron  of  Demeter,  77; 
temple  "C,"  77;  temple  "F,"  86;  tem- 
ple of  Apollo,  70,  78,  80 

Semper,  Gottfried,  488-489,  500,  507,  509 

Senlis,  290,  296,  297 

Sen-Mut,  24 

Sennacherib,   27,   28 

Septapartite  vaults  in  Durham  cathedral, 
260 

Serlio,  Sebastiano,  381,  403 

Seroux  d'Agincourt,  484 

Serra,  Junipero,  529 

Servadony,  J.  N.,  431,  463 

Service  quarters,  2,  29,  430,  434,  442,  444, 
445,  537,  549 

Severus,  118 

Seville,  cathedral,  27.?,  280,  315,  316,  318; 
Giralda  Tower,  316,  318-  El  Salvador, 
altar,  422;  Town  Hall,  387,  388 

Seti  I.,  temple  at  Abydos,  23 

Sexpartite  vaults,  257  ff, 

Shaw,  Norman,  491 

Shell-work,  430 

Shop  fronts,  504 


INDEX 


619 


Shute,  John,  392 

Siccardsburg,  A.  S.  von,  489 

Sicily,  Greek  architecture  in,  51,  52,  55,  56; 
Roman  conquest,  109;  Romanesque 
architecture  in,  239  ff. 

Sidon,  sarcophagi  from,  94 

Siena,  cathedral,  319;  Palazzo  del  Mag- 
nifico,  flag  holder,  373;  Palazzo  Pub- 
blico,  333,  S8o,  581 

Site,  adaptation  in  Greek  architecture  to, 
95 ;  in  medieval  architecture,  335  ff. 

Siva  shrines,  581 

Skene,  89-91 

Skopas,  85 

Skripou,  199 

Skyscrapers,  560-563 

Smibert,  John,  539 

Smithfield,  St.  Luke's,  533 

Snefru,  pyramid  of,  16 

Soane,  Sir  John,  472 

Soest,  Wiesenkirche,  310 

Soissons,  204,  295 

Soufflot,  J.  G.,  431,  462,  500 

Spain,  pre-Romanesque  architecture  of, 
224;  Romanesque  architecture  of,  363  ff.; 
Gothic  architecture  of,  285,  312  ff.; 
Renaissance  architecture  in,  346,  387- 
388;  post-Renaissance  architecture  in, 
402-403,  420-422;  Mohammedan  archi- 
tecture in.  573-574.  579 

Spalato,  palace  of  Diocletian,  115,  142,  143, 
179,  462;  arches,  146,  147;  mausoleum, 
137,  142;  Porta  Aurea,  147 

Spanish  colonial  architecture,  527-531; 

Sparta,  55 

Spatial  forms,  in  Roman  architecture,  148, 
345;  in  Renaissance  architecture,  366- 
368,  377-378,  379 

Speyer,  220.  245,  246,  247 

Spina,  128 

Spire,  development  of,  in  Gothic  architect- 
ure, 206  ff. 

Spoleto,  cathedral,  capitals,  373 

Squares,  370,  423.  436,  448,  475 

Squinches,  200  ff.,  573,  579 

Stables,   434,   444 

Stadions,  56,  74.  92 

Stael,  Madame  de,  476,  500 

Stage,  Greek,  89-90,  91;  Roman,  124; 
modern,  507 

Stained  glass  in  Gothic  architecture,   298 

Stairs,  in  Assyria.  29;  in  Persia,  33;  in 
Crete,  39;  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
378,  380,  384;  in  post-Renaissance 
architecture,  405,  410,  415.  419.  433;  in 
Maya  architecture,  524 

Stalactite  vaulting,  579 

Stanislas,   431 

Steel,  use  of,  in  modern  architecture,  501, 
502,  503-505,  561-562;  see  also  Iron 

Steeples,  447-448,  538 

Stele,  94 

Stereotomy,  437 

Stilt-blocks,   146.  579 

Stilting  in  Gothic  architecture,  288  ff. 

Stiris.  great  church  of  St.  Luke,  200.  201; 
little  church  of  St.  Luke,  190,  199,  200 

Stoas,  74,  87.  91,  92,  in 

Stone  age,  8-9 

Stonehenge,  Q 

Strap-work,  392,  438 

Strasburg,  cathedral,  309,  339,  483;  modern 
buildings,  490 


Strawberry  Hill,  478 

Street,  George  Edmund,  482 

Strickland,  William,  546 

Stuart,  James,  462,  464 

Stucco,  in  Roman  architecture,  147;  in 
Renaissance  architecture,  372,  378;  in 
post-Renaissance  architecture,  418;  in 
American  architecture,  527;  in  Moham- 
medan architecture,  579;  see  also  Rough 
cast 

Stupa,  580-581,  582 

Sullivan,  Louis,  511,  513,  563,  564-565 
"SuROfl  Place,  393 

Switzerland,  Gothic  architecture  in,  321 

Syracuse,    109 

Syria,  Roman  architecture  in,  115,  143, 
146,  152-154;  early  Christian  architect- 
ure in,  171-174;  Mohammedan  archi- 
tecture, 573-574 

Stylobate,  58 

Sumerian  architecture,  26 

Susa,  33 

Symmetry,  50 

Syracuse,  52,  56;  altar  of  Hieron,  86;  palace 
of  Dionysius,  55 

"T"  form  in  Carolingian  architecture,  221 

Tabernacles,  in  Roman  architecture,  144, 
147;  in  Renaissance  architecture,  361, 
372,  374,  376 

Tablinum,  138 

Taine,  Henri,  500 

Tarentum,  52,  109 

Tegea,  temple  of  Athena  Alea,  85 

Tello,  see  Lagash 

Temples,  Egyptian,  18-21;  Assyrian,  29; 
Babylonian,  30,  31;  Greek,  52,  75-86, 
74-87;  Etruscan.  107;  Roman,  112,  114, 
115-120;  imitation  of,  409,  447,  463, 
467,  474,  475,  540,  541-542,  544.  546, 
549,  550;  circular,  56,  85,  107,  109,  118; 
imitation  of,  358,  466 

Tepidarium,  129,  130,  131 

Terra-cotta,  62,  108,  505,  560,  562 

Terramare,  10 

Terraces,  359,  361,  416 

Thamugadi,  143;   forum,  120 

Theaters,  Greek,  52,  56,  74,  89-91;  Roman, 
124-127,  125;  imitation  of,  471,  473-474, 
544,  545;  post-Renaissance,  416-417; 
modern,  472-474,  491,  498,  506-507 

Theatral  area,  39 

Theban  period,  13,  17,  20 

Thebes  (Egypt),  13 

Thebes   (Greece),   55 

Theodoric,   195 

Theodosius  II.,  210 

Theoretical  writings,  Greek,  50;  Roman, 
113;  Renaissance,  352;  post-Renais- 
sance, 392,  403,  409,  423,  425,  443; 
modern,  461,  463,  480,  481,  484,  500, 
503.  506,  509-511,  512 

Therma:,  104,  114,  115,  128-131,  148 

Thinite  period,  12-13 

Thirty  Years'  War,  450 

This,    12 

Tholoi,  see  Temples,  circular 

Thornton,  William,  542 

Thothmes  III.,  24,  27 

Thurii,  98 

Tiberius,   141 

Tiercerons,  in  English  Gothic,  304  ff.;  in 
Flamboyant  Gothic,  306 


620 


INDEX 


Tie-rods,  4.   378 

Tile,  482,  504,  505,  579 

Timgad,  143;    forum,  120 

Tiryns,  37;   palace,  39,  40 

Titus,  133 

Tivoli,  "Temple  of  Vesta,"  109,  110,  118; 
capital,  145;  Villa  d'Este,  stairs,  419; 
villa,  of  Hadrian,  139,  140,  148 

Toledo,  314,  317 

Toltec  architecture,   525 

Tombs,  Egyptian,  16-18;  Persian,  36; 
JEgea.n,  37,  41 ;  Greek,  74,  94-95;  Roman, 
I3S-I37;  Mohammedan,  579 

Torus,  65 

Toulouse,  Hotel  d'Assezat,  384;  St.  Sernin, 
220,  251,  259,  263 

Tourmanin,  772,   173 

Tournus,  St.  Philibert,  254,  255,  271 

Tours,  St.   Martin,  221 

Towers,  in  Romanesque,  267;  in  Gothic, 
206  ff.,  301;  in  Renaissance  architecture, 
414;  in  post-Renaissance  architecture, 
414,  435,  442,  447;  in  modern  architect- 
ure, 475,  480,  503;  in  American  archi- 
tecture, 529,  530,  538,  SSL  552,  553 

Town  halls,  in  Gothic  Flanders,  329  ff.; 
modern,  485,  498 

Town  planning,  Greek,  54-55,  56,  95-98; 
Roman,  113-114;  Italian  Renaissance, 
370-371,  418;  post-Renaissance,  423- 


424,  448,  475 
Townsend,  C.  H., 


513 


Tracery,  plate,  294;    bar,   294,  295 

Trajan,  114,  120,  122,  133 

Treasuries,   86 

Trebizond,   Chrysokephalos,  205 

Trebizond,  Hagia  Sophia,  205,  206 

Tresguerras,  F.  E.,  528 

Troves,  309,  339 

Trianon,  see  Versailles,  483 

Triclinium,  138 

Trier,  Porta  Nigra,  134,  1.35;    buildings  of 

Constantine,   152 
Triforium,  165 

Triglyphs,  58,  60-62,  63,  64;   corner,  144 
Triumphal  arch,  see  Arch,  commemorative 
Trophies,  133,  438 
Troy,  37 
Troyes,  204,  296 
"Tudor  arch,"  306 
Tudor  architecture,  480,  485 
Tumulus,   135,   136-137 
Turin,   Palazzo  Carignano,  412;    Superga, 

413,  4U.  463 
Turkish  architecture,  574,  576;    imitation 

of,  487 
Turrets,  394 

Tuscan  order,  108,  374,  439 
Tuscany,  Romanesque  architecture  in,  234; 

Gothic    architecture    in,    319  ff.;     early 

Renaissance -in,  347-353 

Uji,  Phenix-Hall,  583,  586 

Ulm,  311 

United  States,  architecture  in,  540-565 

Universities,  498 

Upjohn,  Richard,  551 

Ur-Nina,  building  at  Lagash,  26 

Urns,  cinerary,  135 

Uskub,  Church  of  the  Archangels,  205 

Uzes,  267 

Vanbrugh,  Sir  John,  442,  444 


Vandals,    115 

Van  de  Velde,  Henry,  512 

Van  der  Null,  489 

Vanvitelli,  Luigi,  414 

Vasari,  Giorgio,  409 

Vaults,  5;  Egyptian,  23;  Mesopotamian, 
25,  30-32;  JEgean,  41;  Greek,  57,  73; 
Roman,  104-105,  124,  128,  131,  148-149, 
150,  151,  I-52,  154;  in  Romanesque 
architecture,  264^".;  in  Gothic  architect- 
ure, 286,  287 /.;  in  English  Gothic, 
301  ff.;  Renaissance,  378;  post-Renais- 
sance, 436;  modern,  504;  Sassanian,  572- 
573;  Mohammedan,  574,  579 

Vaux-le-Vicomte,  chateau,  426;  gardens, 
434  . 

Velarium,   124 

Veneering,  marble,   118,  131,  149-151,  418 

Venice,  medieval  secular  building  in,  334; 
early  Renaissance  in,  355;  High  Renais- 
sance in,  363-364;  baroque  architecture 
in,  412;  Logetta,  376-377;  Library  of 
St.  Mark,  363-364,  365,  370;  details,  375; 
Palazzo  Cornaro  della  Ca'  Grande, 
363;  Palazzo  Ducale,  334,  335,  340; 
Palazzo  Grimani,  363,  364;  Palazzo 
Vendramini,  354,  355;  S.  Giorgio  Mag- 
giore,  stairs,  419;  SS.  John  and  Paul, 
320;  Sta.  Maria  della  Salute,  412,  413, 
414;  St.  Mark's,  201,  202,  203;  S. 
Salvatore,  365 

Verandas,  531 

Verona,  amphitheater,  128;  city  gates,  363; 
Loggia  del  Consiglio,  370;  Palazzo 
Pompei,  363;  Roman  theater,  126; 
S.  Zeno,  233,  234,  263 

Versailles,  428,  429,  430;  apartments  of 
Louis  XV.,  437;  chapel,  435;  Galerie 
des  Glaces,  430,  431;  gardens,  434; 
Grand  Trianon,  434;  Hall  of  the  States- 
General,  471;  hamlet  of  Marie  Antoin- 
ette, 434,  483;  Petit  Trianon,  432,  433, 
434,  437;  theater,  432 

Vestibules,  415,  433 

Vezelay,  254,  255 

Vicenza,  "Basiliza,"  370,  376,  407,  408; 
imitation  of,  487;  Teatro  Olimpico,  416; 
Villa  Rotonda,  408,  409 

Victorian  Gothic,  482;    in  America,  552 

Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  496 

Vienna,  488-489;  Court  Theater,  489; 
Houses  of  Parliament,  489;  Imperial 
Palace,  489;  Metropolitan  Railway 
stations,  514,  515;  museums,  489;  Opera. 
489;  Palace  of  Justice,  489;  Postal 
Savings  Bank,  515;  Rathaus,  489;  Ring- 
strasse,  489;  S.  Carlo  Borromeo,  451; 
"Secession,"  515;  university,  489;  Vo- 
tive Church,  483,  489 

Viennese  Workshops,   515 

Vignola,  G.  B.  da,  409,  416 

Vignon,  Barthelemy,  467 

Vignory,  261 

Villas,  Roman,  139;  Renaissance,  353,  361, 
369-370;  post-Renaissance,  409,  411, 
416 

Villers-Cotterets,  chapel,  386 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  358,  366 

Viollet-le-Duc,  E.  E.,  482,  484,  500,  503,  504, 
506 

Virginia,  548;  colonial  architecture,  533, 
537 


INDEX 


621' 


Vishnu  shrines,  581 

Viterbo,  S.  Martino,  318 

Vitruvian  academy,  403,  409 

Vitruvius,  50, 68,  108,  113,374,377,392,403 

Volutes,  32,  36,  64-67,  84,  145,  366 

Voysey,  C.  F.  A.,  513-514 

Vries,  V.  de,  392 

Wagner,  Otto,  511,  515 

Wagner,  Richard,  501,  507 

Wall  membering,  Greek,  71;  Roman,  147- 
148;  in  Renaissance  architecture,  376- 
377.  386;  post-Renaissance,  419;  in 
American  architecture,  544 

Wallot,  Paul,  489 

Wall  shafts,  in  Saxon  architecture,   224 

Walls,  typical  form  of,  2 

Walpole,  Horace,  478 

Walter,  Thomas  U.,  546 

Washington,  558;  capitol,  542,  545-546, 
547;  Lincoln  Memorial,  558;  St.  John's, 
550;  White  House,  548,  549;  Treasury, 
546;  Washington  Monument,  546 

Waterhouse,  Alfred,  482,  492 

Webb,  Sir  Aston,  491,  492 

Webb,  Philip,  505 

Wedgwood,  Josiah,  464 

Wells,  cathedral,  302,  304 

Wells,  Hplden,  554,  555 

West  Point,  559 

Westover,  536,  537 

Wheel  windows,  295 

White.  Stanford,  560 

William  of  Sens,  303 

William  the  Conqueror,  259 


Williamsburg,  capitol,  538 

Willson,  E.  J.,  479 

Winckelmann,  462,  463 

Windows,  Greek,  73,  78;  Roman,  144;  in 
medieval  architecture,  165,  267,  294, 
295,  296,  333  ff.;  in  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture, 374,  382;  post-Renaissance,  419, 
437 

Windsor,  St.  George's  Chapel,  306,  339 

Wolsey,  Cardinal,  391 

Wood  construction,  imitation  of,  in  Persia, 
33;  in  Doric  architecture,  60,  62;  in 
Ionic  architecture,  65 

Wood,  use  of,  in  America,  532,  533,  534, 
540,  547;  in  Indian  architecture,  580; 
in  Chinese  architecture,  580,  584 

Wood,  John,  448 

Wood,  Robert,  462 

Worms,  245,  246 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  439-442,  444,  445, 
447,  448,  477 

Wright,  F.  L.,  565 

Wyatt,  James,  478 

Xerxes,  palace  and  hall  of,  34,  35-36 

York,  assembly  rooms,  443;  cathedral,  305, 

339 

Ypres,  Cloth  Hall,  330,  338 
Yucatan,  524-525 

Ziggurat,  29-30 
Zigzag  molding,  255,  256 
Zoroastrianism,  33 
Zoser,  pyramid  of,  16 


THE    END 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY,  LOS  ANGELES 
Architecture  &  Urban  Planning  Library,  825-2747. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


JUN  16  1986 

JUN  4-  1986 

REC'D  AUPU 

OCT  27  1986 

051986 


0 


REC'D  AUPL 


PSD  2339  9/77 


s 

*2L  x-~ '    *  -5     A    —        s: 

^aojnvo-jo->"    ^/ojnvj-jo^ 


UCLA-AUPL 

NA200K56h 


.Of  -f  AL  i  F0%  ^OF-CAli  F  Of,;^ 

&    / — "v  '^  5^  >    x — >k.  " 

CL/<:>  A  =5  S  NA-TS 

TT "J  ^  >  vT^) 

A  I  r^-^k       £  -^       A  I  f^ 

I  "d  i       ^  I 

. — '  P     I  .   -J  I    I 

" 


. 


ANGEL 


5^ 


